Haiti
Republic of Haiti | |
|---|---|
| Motto: "Liberté, égalité, fraternité" (French)[2] Motto on traditional coat of arms:"Libète, Egalite, Fratènite" (Haitian Creole) "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" "L'union fait la force" (French) "Inite se fòs" (Haitian Creole)[3] "Union makes strength" | |
| Anthem: La Dessalinienne (French) Desalinyèn (Haitian Creole) "The Dessalines Song" | |
.svg)  | |
| Capital and largest city | Port-au-Prince 18°35′39″N 72°18′26″W / 18.59417°N 72.30722°W |
| Official languages | |
| Ethnic groups | 95% Black 5% Mixed or White[4] |
| Religion (2020)[5] |
|
| Demonym(s) | Haitian |
| Government | Unitary semi-presidential republic under an interim government |
| |
| Alix Didier Fils-Aimé (acting)[6] | |
| Legislature | National Assembly[a] |
| Senate[a] | |
| Chamber of Deputies[a] | |
| Independence from France | |
• Independence declared | 1 January 1804 |
• Independence recognized | 17 April 1825 |
| 22 September 1804 | |
| 9 March 1806 | |
| 17 October 1806 | |
• Kingdom | 28 March 1811 |
| 9 February 1822 | |
• Dissolution | 27 February 1844 |
| 26 August 1849 | |
• Republic | 15 January 1859 |
| 28 July 1915 – 1 August 1934 | |
• Independence from the United States | 15 August 1934 |
| 29 March 1987 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 27,750[7] km2 (10,710 sq mi) (143rd) |
• Water (%) | 0.7 |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate | 11,470,261[8] (83rd) |
• Density | 382/km2 (989.4/sq mi) (32nd) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2023 estimate |
• Total |  $38.952 billion[9] (144th) |
• Per capita | $3,185[9] (174th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $25.986 billion[9] (139th) |
• Per capita | $2,125[9] (172nd) |
| Gini (2023) |  41[10]medium inequality |
| HDI (2022) |  0.552[11]medium (158th) |
| Currency | Gourde (G) (HTG) |
| Time zone | UTC−05:00 (Eastern Standard Time) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC−04:00 (Eastern Daylight Time) |
| Drives on | Right |
| Calling code | +509 |
| ISO 3166 code | HT |
| Internet TLD | .ht |
Haiti,[b] officially the Republic of Haiti,[c][d] is a country on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and south of The Bahamas. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic.[18][19] Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean, and with an estimated population of 11.4 million, is the most populous Caribbean country.[20][21][22] The capital and largest city is Port-au-Prince.
Haiti was originally inhabited by the Taíno people.[23] In 1492, Christopher Columbus established the first European settlement in the Americas, La Navidad, on its northeastern coast.[24][25] The island was part of the Spanish Empire until 1697, when the western portion was ceded to France and became Saint-Domingue, dominated by sugarcane plantations worked by enslaved Africans. The 1791-1804 Haitian Revolution made Haiti the first sovereign state in the Caribbean, the second republic in the Americas, the first country in the Americas to officially abolish slavery, and the only country in history established by a slave revolt.[26][27][28] The 19th century saw political instability, international isolation, debt to France, and failed invasions of the Dominican Republic, including a costly war. U.S. forces occupied Haiti from 1915 to 1934,[29] followed by dictatorial rule of the Duvalier family (1957–1986). After a coup d'état in 2004, the United Nations intervened. In 2010, a catastrophic earthquake and a deadly cholera outbreak devastated the country.[30]
Haiti is a founding member of the United Nations, Organization of American States (OAS),[31] Association of Caribbean States,[32] and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. In addition to CARICOM, it is a member of the International Monetary Fund,[33] World Trade Organization,[34] and Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. Historically poor and politically unstable, as of 2024, Haiti has faced severe economic and political crises, gang activity,[35] and the collapse of its government. With no elected officials remaining, Haiti has been described as a failed state.[36][37]
Etymology
Haiti (also earlier Hayti)[d] comes from the indigenous Taíno language and means "land of high mountains";[38] it was the native name[e] for the entire island of Hispaniola. The name was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors.[42]
In French, the ï in Haïti has a diacritical mark (used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately, as in the word naïve), while the H is silent.[43] (In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, thus the spelling Haiti is used.) There are different anglicizations for its pronunciation such as HIGH-ti, high-EE-ti and haa-EE-ti, which are still in use, but HAY-ti is the most widespread and best-established.[44] In French, Haiti's nickname means the "Pearl of the Antilles" (La Perle des Antilles) because of both its natural beauty[45] and the amount of wealth it accumulated for the Kingdom of France.[46] In Haitian Creole, it is spelled and pronounced with a y but no H: Ayiti. Another theory on the name Haiti is its origin in African tradition; in Fon language, one of the most spoken by the bossales (Haitians born in Africa), Ayiti-Tomè means: "From nowadays this land is our land."[citation needed]
In the Haitian community the country has multiple nicknames: Ayiti-Toma (as its origin in Ayiti Tomè), Ayiti-Cheri (Ayiti my Darling), Tè-Desalin (Dessalines' Land) or Lakay (Home).[citation needed]
History
Pre-Columbian era
The island of Hispaniola, of which Haiti occupies the western three-eighths,[18][19] has been inhabited since around 6,000 years ago by Native Americans who are thought to have arrived from Central or northern South America. These Archaic Age people are thought to have been largely hunter gatherers. During the 1st millennium BC, the Arawakan-speaking ancestors of the Taino people began to migrate into the Caribbean. Unlike the Archaic peoples, they practiced the intensive production of pottery and agriculture. The earliest evidence of the ancestors of the Taino people on Hispaniola is the Ostionoid culture, which dates to around 600 AD.[47]
In Taíno society the largest unit of political organization was led by a cacique, or chief, as the Europeans understood them. At the time of European contact, the island of Hispaniola was divided among five 'caciquedoms': the Magua in the northeast, the Marien in the northwest, the Jaragua in the southwest, the Maguana in the central regions of Cibao, and the Higüey in the southeast.[48][49]
Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become national symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions. Modern-day Léogâne, started as a French colonial town in the southwest, is beside the former capital of the caciquedom of Xaragua.[50]
Colonial era
Spanish rule (1492–1625)
Navigator Christopher Columbus landed in Haiti on 6 December 1492, in an area that he named Môle-Saint-Nicolas,[51] and claimed the island for the Crown of Castile. Nineteen days later, his ship the Santa María ran aground near the present site of Cap-Haïtien. Columbus left 39 men on the island, who founded the settlement of La Navidad on 25 December 1492.[52] Relations with the native peoples, initially good, broke down and the settlers were later killed by the Taíno.[53]
The sailors carried endemic Eurasian infectious diseases, causing epidemics that killed a large number of native people.[54][55] The first recorded smallpox epidemic in the Americas erupted on Hispaniola in 1507.[56] Their numbers were further reduced by the harshness of the encomienda system, in which the Spanish forced natives to work in gold mines and plantations.[57][53]
The Spanish passed the Laws of Burgos (1512–1513), which forbade the maltreatment of natives, endorsed their conversion to Catholicism,[58] and gave legal framework to encomiendas. The natives were brought to these sites to work in specific plantations or industries.[59]
As the Spanish re-focused their colonization efforts on the greater riches of mainland Central and South America, Hispaniola became reduced largely to a trading and refueling post. As a result piracy became widespread, encouraged by European powers hostile to Spain such as France (based on Île de la Tortue) and England.[53] The Spanish largely abandoned the western third of the island, focusing their colonization effort on the eastern two-thirds.[60][52] The western part of the island was thus gradually settled by French buccaneers; among them was Bertrand d'Ogeron, who succeeded in growing tobacco and recruited many French colonial families from Martinique and Guadeloupe.[61] In 1697 France and Spain settled their hostilities on the island by way of the Treaty of Ryswick of 1697, which divided Hispaniola between them.[62][52]
French rule (1625–1804)
France received the western third and subsequently named it Saint-Domingue, the French equivalent of Santo Domingo, the Spanish colony on Hispaniola.[63] The French set about creating sugar and coffee plantations, worked by vast numbers of those enslaved imported from Africa, and Saint-Domingue grew to become their richest colonial possession,[62][52] generating 40% of France’s foreign trade and doubling the wealth generation of all of England’s colonies, combined.[64]
The French settlers were outnumbered by enslaved persons by almost 10 to 1.[62] According to the 1788 Census, Haiti's population consisted of nearly 25,000 Europeans, 22,000 free coloreds and 700,000 Africans in slavery.[65] In contrast, by 1763 the white population of French Canada, a far larger territory, had numbered only 65,000.[66] In the north of the island, those enslaved were able to retain many ties to African cultures, religion and language; these ties were continually being renewed by newly imported Africans. Some West Africans in slavery held on to their traditional Vodou beliefs by secretly syncretizing it with Catholicism.[52]
The French enacted the Code Noir ("Black Code"), prepared by Jean-Baptiste Colbert and ratified by Louis XIV, which established rules on slave treatment and permissible freedoms.[67] Saint-Domingue has been described as one of the most brutally efficient slave colonies; at the end of the eighteenth century it was supplying two-thirds of Europe's tropical produce while one-third of newly imported Africans died within a few years.[68] Many enslaved persons died from diseases such as smallpox and typhoid fever.[69] They had low birth rates,[70] and there is evidence that some women aborted fetuses rather than give birth to children within the bonds of slavery.[71] The colony's environment also suffered, as forests were cleared to make way for plantations and the land was overworked so as to extract maximum profit for French plantation owners.[52]
As in its Louisiana colony, the French colonial government allowed some rights to free people of color (gens de couleur), the mixed-race descendants of European male colonists and African enslaved females (and later, mixed-race women).[62] Over time, many were released from slavery and they established a separate social class. White French Creole fathers frequently sent their mixed-race sons to France for their education. Some men of color were admitted into the military. More of the free people of color lived in the south of the island, near Port-au-Prince, and many intermarried within their community.[62] They frequently worked as artisans and tradesmen, and began to own some property, including enslaved persons of their own.[52][62] The free people of color petitioned the colonial government to expand their rights.[62]
The brutality of slave life led many people in bondage to escape to mountainous regions, where they set up their own autonomous communities and became known as maroons.[52] One maroon leader, François Mackandal, led a rebellion in the 1750s; however, he was later captured and executed by the French.[62]
Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)
Inspired by the French Revolution of 1789 and principles of the rights of man, the French settlers and free people of color pressed for greater political freedom and more civil rights.[67] Tensions between these two groups led to conflict, as a militia of free-coloreds was set up in 1790 by Vincent Ogé, resulting in his capture, torture and execution.[52] Sensing an opportunity, in August 1791 the first slave armies were established in northern Haiti under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture inspired by the Vodou houngan (priest) Boukman, and backed by the Spanish in Santo Domingo – soon a full-blown slave rebellion had broken out across the entire colony.[52]
In 1792, the French government sent three commissioners with troops to re-establish control; to build an alliance with the gens de couleur and enslaved persons commissioners Léger-Félicité Sonthonax and Étienne Polverel abolished slavery in the colony.[67] Six months later, the National Convention, led by Maximilien de Robespierre and the Jacobins, endorsed abolition and extended it to all the French colonies.[72]
The United States, which was a new republic itself, oscillated between supporting or not supporting Toussaint Louverture and the emerging country of Haiti, depending on who was President of the US. Washington, who was a slave holder and isolationist, kept the United States neutral, although private US citizens at times provided aid to French planters trying to put down the revolt. John Adams, a vocal opponent of slavery, fully supported the slave revolt by providing diplomatic recognition, financial support, munitions and warships (including the USS Constitution) beginning in 1798. This support ended in 1801 when Jefferson, another slave-holding president, took office and recalled the US Navy.[73][74][75]
With slavery abolished, Toussaint Louverture pledged allegiance to France, and he fought off the British and Spanish forces who had taken advantage of the situation and invaded Saint-Domingue.[76][77] The Spanish were later forced to cede their part of the island to France under the terms of the Peace of Basel in 1795, uniting the island under one government. However, an insurgency against French rule broke out in the east, and in the west there was fighting between Louverture's forces and the free people of color led by André Rigaud in the War of the Knives (1799–1800).[78][79] The United States' support for the blacks in the war contributed to their victory over the mulattoes.[80] More than 25,000 whites and free blacks left the island as refugees.[81]
After Louverture created a separatist constitution and proclaimed himself governor-general for life, Napoléon Bonaparte in 1802 sent an expedition of 20,000 soldiers and as many sailors[82] under the command of his brother-in-law, Charles Leclerc, to reassert French control. The French achieved some victories, but within a few months most of their army had died from yellow fever.[83] Ultimately more than 50,000 French troops died in an attempt to retake the colony, including 18 generals.[84] The French managed to capture Louverture, transporting him to France for trial. He was imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803 of exposure and possibly tuberculosis.[68][85]
The enslaved persons, along with free gens de couleur and allies, continued their fight for independence, led by generals Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Alexandre Pétion and Henry Christophe.[85] The rebels finally managed to decisively defeat the French troops at the Battle of Vertières on 18 November 1803, establishing the first state ever to successfully gain independence through a slave revolt.[86] Under the overall command of Dessalines, the Haitian armies avoided open battle, and instead conducted a successful guerrilla campaign against the Napoleonic forces, working with diseases such as yellow fever to reduce the numbers of French soldiers.[87] Later that year France withdrew its remaining 7,000 troops from the island and Napoleon gave up his idea of re-establishing a North American empire, selling Louisiana (New France) to the United States, in the Louisiana Purchase.[85]
Throughout the revolution, an estimated 20,000 French troops succumbed to yellow fever, while another 37,000 were killed in action,[88] exceeding the total French soldiers killed in action across various 19th-century colonial campaigns in Algeria, Mexico, Indochina, Tunisia, and West Africa, which resulted in approximately 10,000 French soldiers killed in action combined.[89] The British sustained 45,000 dead.[90] Additionally, 350,000 ex-enslaved Haitians died.[91] In the process, Dessalines became arguably the most successful military commander in the struggle against Napoleonic France.[92]
Independent Haiti
First Empire (1804–1806)
The independence of Saint-Domingue was proclaimed under the native name 'Haiti' by Jean-Jacques Dessalines on 1 January 1804 in Gonaïves[93][94] and he was proclaimed "Emperor for Life" as Emperor Jacques I by his troops.[95] Dessalines at first offered protection to the white planters and others.[96] However, once in power, he ordered the genocide of nearly all the remaining white men, women, children; between January and April 1804, 3,000 to 5,000 whites were killed, including those who had been friendly and sympathetic to the black population.[97] Only three categories of white people were selected out as exceptions and spared: Polish soldiers, the majority of whom had deserted from the French army and fought alongside the Haitian rebels; the small group of German colonists invited to the north-west region; and a group of medical doctors and professionals.[98] Reportedly, people with connections to officers in the Haitian army were also spared, as well as the women who agreed to marry non-white men.[99]
Fearful of the potential impact the slave rebellion could have in the slave states, U.S. President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize the new republic. The Southern politicians who were a powerful voting bloc in the American Congress prevented U.S. recognition for decades until they withdrew in 1861 to form the Confederacy.[100]
The revolution led to a wave of emigration.[101] In 1809, 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue, both white planters and people of color, settled en masse in New Orleans, doubling the city's population, having been expelled from their initial refuge in Cuba by Spanish authorities.[102] In addition, the newly arrived enslaved persons added to the city's African population.[103]
The plantation system was re-established in Haiti, albeit for wages; however, many Haitians were marginalized and resented the heavy-handed manner in which this was enforced in the new nation's politics.[85] The rebel movement splintered, and Dessalines was assassinated by rivals on 17 October 1806.[104][Link to precise page][85]
State of Haiti, Kingdom of Haiti and the Republic (1806–1820)
After Dessalines' death Haiti became split into two, with the Kingdom of Haiti in the north directed by Henri Christophe, later declaring himself Henri I, and a republic in the south centered on Port-au-Prince, directed by Alexandre Pétion, an homme de couleur.[106][107][108][109] Pétion's republic was less absolutist, and he initiated a series of land reforms which benefited the peasant class.[85] President Pétion also gave military and financial assistance to the revolutionary leader Simón Bolívar, which were critical in enabling him to liberate the Viceroyalty of New Granada.[110] Meanwhile, the French, who had managed to maintain a precarious control of eastern Hispaniola, were defeated by insurgents led by Juan Sánchez Ramírez, with the area returning to Spanish rule in 1809 following the Battle of Palo Hincado.[111]
Unification of Hispaniola (1821–1844)
_Portrait.jpg)
Beginning in 1821, President Jean-Pierre Boyer, also an homme de couleur and successor to Pétion, reunified the island following the suicide of Henry Christophe.[52][112] After Santo Domingo declared its independence from Spain on 30 November 1821, Boyer invaded, seeking to unite the entire island by force and ending slavery in Santo Domingo.[113]
Struggling to revive the agricultural economy to produce commodity crops, Boyer passed the Code Rural, which denied peasant laborers the right to leave the land, enter the towns, or start farms or shops of their own, causing much resentment as most peasants wished to have their own farms rather than work on plantations.[114][115]
Starting in September 1824, more than 6,000 African Americans migrated to Haiti, with transportation paid by an American philanthropic group similar in function to the American Colonization Society and its efforts in Liberia.[116] Many found the conditions too harsh and returned to the United States.[citation needed]
In July 1825, King Charles X of France, during a period of restoration of the French monarchy, sent a fleet to reconquer Haiti. Under pressure, President Boyer agreed to a treaty by which France formally recognized the independence of the state in exchange for a payment of 150 million francs.[52] By an order of 17 April 1826, the King of France renounced his rights of sovereignty and formally recognized the independence of Haiti.[117][118][119] The enforced payments to France hampered Haiti's economic growth for years, exacerbated by the fact that many Western states continued to refuse formal diplomatic recognition to Haiti; Britain recognized Haitian independence in 1833, and the United States not until 1862.[52] Haiti borrowed heavily from Western banks at extremely high interest rates to repay the debt. Although the amount of the reparations was reduced to 90 million in 1838, by 1900 80% of Haiti's government spending was debt repayment and the country did not finish repaying it until 1947.[120][85]
Loss of the Spanish portion of the island
After losing the support of Haiti's elite, Boyer was ousted in 1843, with Charles Rivière-Hérard replacing him as president.[52] Nationalist Dominican forces in eastern Hispaniola led by Juan Pablo Duarte seized control of Santo Domingo on 27 February 1844.[52] The Haitian forces, unprepared for a significant uprising, capitulated to the rebels, effectively ending Haitian rule of eastern Hispaniola. In March Rivière-Hérard attempted to reimpose his authority, but the Dominicans inflicted heavy losses.[121] Rivière-Hérard was removed from office by the mulatto hierarchy and replaced with the aged general Philippe Guerrier, who assumed the presidency on 3 May 1844.[citation needed]
Guerrier died in April 1845, and was succeeded by General Jean-Louis Pierrot.[122] Pierrot's most pressing duty as the new president was to check the incursions of the Dominicans, who were harassing the Haitian troops.[122] Dominican gunboats were also making depredations on Haiti's coasts.[122] President Pierrot decided to open a campaign against the Dominicans, whom he considered merely as insurgents; however, the Haitian offensive of 1845 was stopped on the frontier.[121]
On 1 January 1846 Pierrot announced a fresh campaign to reimpose Haitian suzerainty over eastern Hispaniola, but his officers and men greeted this fresh summons with contempt.[121] Thus, a month later – February 1846 – when Pierrot ordered his troops to march against the Dominicans, the Haitian army mutinied, and its soldiers proclaimed his overthrow as president of the republic.[121] With the war against the Dominicans having become very unpopular in Haiti, it was beyond the power of the new president, General Jean-Baptiste Riché, to stage another invasion.[121]
Second Empire (1849–1859)
On 27 February 1847, President Riché died after only a year in power and was replaced by an obscure officer, General Faustin Soulouque.[52] During the first two years of Soulouque's administration the conspiracies and opposition he faced in retaining power were so manifold that the Dominicans were given a further breathing space in which to consolidate their independence.[121] But, when in 1848 France finally recognized the Dominican Republic as a free and independent state and provisionally signed a treaty of peace, friendship, commerce and navigation, Haiti immediately protested, claiming the treaty was an attack upon their own security.[121] Soulouque decided to invade the new Republic before the French Government could ratify the treaty.[121]
On 21 March 1849, Haitian soldiers attacked the Dominican garrison at Las Matas. The demoralized defenders offered almost no resistance before abandoning their weapons. Soulouque pressed on, capturing San Juan. This left only the town of Azua as the remaining Dominican stronghold between the Haitian army and the capital. On 6 April, Azua fell to the 18,000-strong Haitian army, with a 5,000-man Dominican counterattack failing to oust them.[76] The way to Santo Domingo was now clear. But the news of discontent existing at Port-au-Prince, which reached Soulouque, arrested his further progress and caused him to return with the army to his capital.[123]
Emboldened by the sudden retreat of the Haitian army, the Dominicans counter-attacked. Their flotilla went as far as Dame-Marie on the west coast of Haiti, which they plundered and set on fire.[123] After another Haitian campaign in 1855, Britain and France intervened and obtained an armistice on behalf of the Dominicans, who declared independence as the Dominican Republic.[123]
The sufferings endured by the soldiers during the campaign of 1855, and the losses and sacrifices inflicted on the country without yielding any compensation or any practical results provoked great discontent.[123] In 1858 a revolution began, led by General Fabre Geffrard, Duke of Tabara. In December of that year, Geffrard defeated the Imperial Army and seized control of most of the country.[52] As a result, the Emperor abdicated his throne on 15 January 1859. Faustin was taken into exile and General Geffrard succeeded him as president.[citation needed]
Late 19th century–early 20th century
The period following Soulouque's overthrow down to the turn of the century was a turbulent one for Haiti, with repeated bouts of political instability. President Geffrard was overthrown in a coup in 1867,[124] as was his successor, Sylvain Salnave, in 1869.[125] Under the Presidency of Michel Domingue (1874–76) relations with the Dominican Republic were dramatically improved by the signing of a treaty, in which both parties acknowledged the independence of the other. Some modernisation of the economy and infrastructure also occurred in this period, especially under the Presidencies of Lysius Salomon (1879–1888) and Florvil Hyppolite (1889–1896).[126]
Haiti's relations with outside powers were often strained. In 1889 the United States attempted to force Haiti to permit the building of a naval base at Môle Saint-Nicolas, which was firmly resisted by President Hyppolite.[127] In 1892 the German government supported suppression of the reform movement of Anténor Firmin, and in 1897, the Germans used gunboat diplomacy to intimidate and then humiliate the Haitian government of President Tirésias Simon Sam (1896–1902) during the Lüders Affair.[128]
In the first decades of the 20th century, Haiti experienced great political instability and was heavily in debt to France, Germany and the United States. A series of short lived presidencies came and went: President Pierre Nord Alexis was forced from power in 1908,[129][130] as was his successor François C. Antoine Simon in 1911;[131] President Cincinnatus Leconte (1911–12) was killed in a (possibly deliberate) explosion at the National Palace;[132] Michel Oreste (1913–14) was ousted in a coup, as was his successor Oreste Zamor in 1914.[133]
United States occupation (1915–1934)
Germany increased its influence in Haiti in this period, with a small community of German settlers wielding disproportionate influence in Haiti's economy.[134][135] The German influence prompted anxieties in the United States, who had also invested heavily in the country, and whose government defended their right to oppose foreign interference in the Americas under the Monroe Doctrine.[52][135] In December 1914, the Americans removed $500,000 from the Haitian National Bank, but rather than seize it to help pay the debt, it was removed for safe-keeping in New York, thus giving the United States control of the bank and preventing other powers from doing so. This gave a stable financial base on which to build the economy, and to enable the debt to be repaid.[136]
In 1915, Haiti's new President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam sought to strengthen his tenuous rule by a mass execution of 167 political prisoners. Outrage at the killings led to riots, and Sam was captured and killed by a lynch mob.[135][137] Fearing possible foreign intervention, or the emergence of a new government led by the anti-American Haitian politician Rosalvo Bobo, President Woodrow Wilson sent U.S. Marines into Haiti in July 1915. The USS Washington, under Rear Admiral Caperton, arrived in Port-au-Prince in an attempt to restore order and protect U.S. interests. Within days, the Marines had taken control of the capital city and its banks and customs house. The Marines declared martial law and severely censored the press. Within weeks, a new pro-U.S. Haitian president, Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave, was installed and a new constitution written that was favorable to the interests of the United States. The constitution (written by future US President Franklin D. Roosevelt) included a clause that allowed, for the first time, foreign ownership of land in Haiti, which was bitterly opposed by the Haitian legislature and citizenry.[135][138]
The occupation improved some of Haiti's infrastructure and centralized power in Port-au-Prince.[135] 1700 km of roads were made usable, 189 bridges were built, many irrigation canals were rehabilitated, hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed, and drinking water was brought to the main cities.[citation needed] Agricultural education was organized, with a central school of agriculture and 69 farms in the country.[139][incomplete short citation] However, many infrastructure projects were built using the corvée system that allowed the government/occupying forces to take people from their homes and farms, at gunpoint if necessary, to build roads, bridges etc. by force, a process that was deeply resented by ordinary Haitians.[140][135] Sisal was also introduced to Haiti, and sugarcane and cotton became significant exports, boosting prosperity.[141] Haitian traditionalists, based in rural areas, were highly resistant to U.S.-backed changes, while the urban elites, typically mixed-race, welcomed the growing economy, but wanted more political control.[52] Together they helped secure an end to the occupation in 1934, under the Presidency of Sténio Vincent (1930–1941).[52][142] The debts were still outstanding, though less due to increased prosperity, and the U.S. financial advisor-general receiver handled the budget until 1941.[143][52]
The U.S. Marines were instilled with a special brand of paternalism towards Haitians "expressed in the metaphor of a father's relationship with his children."[144] Armed opposition to the US presence was led by the cacos under the command of Charlemagne Péralte; his capture and execution in 1919 earned him the status of a national martyr.[145][52][135] During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the 20 months of active unrest, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy, he reported the death toll as being 3,250.[146] Haitian historians have claimed the true number was much higher, but this is not supported by most historians outside Haiti.[147]
Post-occupation era (1934–1957)
After U.S. forces left in 1934, Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo used anti-Haitian sentiment as a nationalist tool. In an event that became known as the Parsley Massacre, he ordered his army to kill Haitians living on the Dominican side of the border.[148][149] Few bullets were used; instead, 20,000–30,000 Haitians were bludgeoned and bayoneted, then herded into the sea, where sharks finished what Trujillo had begun.[150] The indiscriminate massacre occurred over a period of five days.
As Haiti President Vincent became increasingly dictatorial, let he resigned under U.S. pressure in 1941, being replaced by Élie Lescot (1941–46).[151] In 1941, during the Second World War, Lescot declared war on Japan (8 December), Germany (12 December), Italy (12 December), Bulgaria (24 December), Hungary (24 December) and Romania (24 December).[152] Out of these six Axis countries, only Romania reciprocated, declaring war on Haiti on the same day (24 December 1941).[153] On 27 September 1945,[154] Haiti became a founding member of the United Nations (the successor to the League of Nations, of which Haiti was also a founding member).[155][156]
In 1946 Lescot was overthrown by the military, with Dumarsais Estimé later becoming the new president (1946–50).[52] He sought to improve the economy and education, and to boost the role of black Haitians; however, as he sought to consolidate his rule he too was overthrown in a coup led by Paul Magloire, who replaced him as president (1950–56).[52][157] Firmly anti-Communist, he was supported by the United States; with greater political stability tourists started to visit Haiti.[158] The waterfront area of Port-au-Prince was redeveloped to allow cruise ship passengers to walk to cultural attractions.
Duvalier dynasty (1957–1986)
In 1956–57 Haiti underwent severe political turmoil; Magloire was forced to resign and leave the country in 1956 and he was followed by four short-lived presidencies.[52] In the September 1957 election François Duvalier was elected President of Haiti. Known as 'Papa Doc' and initially popular, Duvalier remained President until his death in 1971.[159] He advanced black interests in the public sector, where over time, people of color had predominated as the educated urban elite.[52][160] Not trusting the army, despite his frequent purges of officers deemed disloyal, Duvalier created a private militia known as Tontons Macoutes ("Bogeymen"), which maintained order by terrorizing the populace and political opponents.[159][161] In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself 'President for Life'; an uprising against his rule that year in Jérémie was violently suppressed, with the ringleaders publicly executed and hundreds of mixed-raced citizens in the town killed.[159] The bulk of the educated and professional class began leaving the country, and corruption became widespread.[52][159] Duvalier sought to create a personality cult, identifying himself with Baron Samedi, one of the loa (or lwa), or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. Despite the well-publicized abuses under his rule, Duvalier's firm anti-Communism earned him the support of the Americans, who furnished the country with aid.[159][162]
In 1971, Duvalier died, and he was succeeded by his son Jean-Claude Duvalier, nicknamed 'Baby Doc', who ruled until 1986.[163][159] He largely continued his father's policies, though curbed some of the worst excesses in order to court international respectability.[52] Tourism, which had nosedived in Papa Doc's time, again became a growing industry.[164] However, as the economy continued to decline, Baby Doc's grip on power began to weaken. Haiti's pig population was slaughtered following an outbreak of swine fever in the late 1970s, causing hardship to rural communities who used them as an investment.[52][165] The opposition became more vocal, bolstered by a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II in 1983, who publicly lambasted the president.[166] Demonstrations occurred in Gonaïves in 1985 which then spread across the country; under pressure from the United States, Duvalier left the country for France in February 1986.[citation needed]
In total, roughly 40,000 to 60,000 Haitians are estimated to have been killed during the reign of the Duvaliers.[167] Through the use of his intimidation tactics and executions, many intellectual Haitians had fled, leaving the country with a massive brain-drain from which it has yet to recover.[168]
Post-Duvalier era (1986–2004)
Following Duvalier's departure, army leader General Henri Namphy headed a new National Governing Council.[52] Elections scheduled for November 1987 were aborted after dozens of inhabitants were shot in the capital by soldiers and Tontons Macoutes.[169][52] Fraudulent elections followed in 1988, in which only 4% of the citizenry voted.[170][52] The newly elected president, Leslie Manigat, was then overthrown some months later in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état.[52][171]
Another coup followed in September 1988, after the St. Jean Bosco massacre in which approximately 13 to 50 people attending a mass led by prominent government critic and Catholic priest Jean-Bertrand Aristide were killed.[171][172] General Prosper Avril subsequently led a military regime until March 1990.[52][173][174]
Avril transferred power to the army chief of staff, Gen. Hérard Abraham, on March 10, 1990. Abraham gave up power three days later, becoming the only military leader in Haiti during the twentieth century to voluntarily give up power. Abraham later helped to secure the 1990–91 Haitian general election.[citation needed]
In December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide was elected president in the Haitian general election. However, his ambitious reformist agenda worried the elites, and in September of the following year he was overthrown by the military, led by Raoul Cédras, in the 1991 Haitian coup d'état.[52][175] Amidst the continuing turmoil many Haitians attempted to flee the country.[159][52]
In September 1994, the United States negotiated the departure of Haiti's military leaders and the peaceful entry of 20,000 US troops under Operation Uphold Democracy.[159] This enabled the restoration of the democratically elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide as president, who returned to Haiti in October to complete his term.[176][177] As part of the deal Aristide had to implement free market reforms in an attempt to improve the Haitian economy, with mixed results.[178][52] In November 1994, Hurricane Gordon brushed Haiti, dumping heavy rain and creating flash flooding that triggered mudslides. Gordon killed an estimated 1,122 people, although some estimates go as high as 2,200.[179][180]
Elections were held in 1995 which were won by René Préval, gaining 88% of the popular vote, albeit on a low turnout.[181][182][52] Aristide subsequently formed his own party, Fanmi Lavalas, and political deadlock ensued; the November 2000 election returned Aristide to the presidency with 92% of the vote.[183] The election had been boycotted by the opposition, then organized into the Convergence Démocratique, over a dispute in the May legislative elections. In subsequent years, there was increasing violence between rival political factions and human rights abuses.[184][185] Aristide spent years negotiating with the Convergence Démocratique on new elections, but the Convergence's inability to develop a sufficient electoral base made elections unattractive.[citation needed]
In 2004, an anti-Aristide revolt began in northern Haiti. The rebellion eventually reached the capital, and Aristide was forced into exile.[184][52] The precise nature of the events are disputed; some, including Aristide and his bodyguard, Franz Gabriel, stated that he was the victim of a "new coup d'état or modern kidnapping" by U.S. forces.[184][186][187] These charges were denied by the US government.[188][184] As political violence and crime continued to grow, a United Nations Stabilisation Mission (MINUSTAH) was brought in to maintain order.[189] However, MINUSTAH proved controversial, since their periodically heavy-handed approach to maintaining law and order and several instances of abuses, including the alleged sexual abuse of civilians, provoked resentment and distrust among ordinary Haitians.[190][191][52]
Boniface Alexandre assumed interim authority until 2006, when René Préval was re-elected President following elections.[189][52][192]
Post-Aristide era (2004–present)
Amidst the continuing political chaos, a series of natural disasters hit Haiti. In 2004, Tropical Storm Jeanne skimmed the north coast, leaving 3,006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of Gonaïves.[193] In 2008, Haiti was again struck by tropical storms; Tropical Storm Fay, Hurricane Gustav, Hurricane Hanna and Hurricane Ike all produced heavy winds and rain, resulting in 331 deaths and about 800,000 in need of humanitarian aid.[194] The state of affairs produced by these storms was intensified by already high food and fuel prices that had caused a food crisis and political unrest in April 2008.[195][196][52]
On 12 January 2010, at 4:53 pm local time, Haiti was struck by a magnitude-7.0 earthquake. This was the country's most severe earthquake in over 200 years.[197] The earthquake was reported to have left between 160,000 and 300,000 people dead and up to 1.6 million homeless, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters ever recorded.[198][199] It is also one of the deadliest earthquakes ever recorded.[200] The situation was exacerbated by a subsequent massive cholera outbreak that was triggered when cholera-infected waste from a United Nations peacekeeping station contaminated the country's main river, the Artibonite.[189][201][202] In 2017, it was reported that roughly 10,000 Haitians had died and nearly a million had been made ill. After years of denial, the United Nations apologized in 2016, but as of 2017[update], they have refused to acknowledge fault, thus avoiding financial responsibility.[203]
General elections had been planned for January 2010 but were postponed due to the earthquake.[52] Elections were held on 28 November 2010 for the senate, the parliament and the first round of the presidential elections. The run-off between Michel Martelly and Mirlande Manigat took place on 20 March 2011, and preliminary results, released on 4 April, named Michel Martelly the winner.[204][205] In 2011, both former dictator Jean-Claude Duvalier and Jean-Bertrand Aristide returned to Haiti; attempts to try Duvalier for crimes committed under his rule were shelved following his death in 2014.[206][207][208][204] In 2013, the Haitian government called for European governments to pay reparations for slavery and establish an official commission for the settlement of past wrongdoings.[209][210] Meanwhile, after continuing political wrangling with the opposition and allegations of electoral fraud, Martelly agreed to step down in 2016 without a successor in place.[204][211] After numerous postponements, partly owing to the effects of devastating Hurricane Matthew, elections were held in November 2016.[212][213] The victor, Jovenel Moïse of the Haitian Tèt Kale Party, was sworn in as president in 2017.[214][215] Protests began on 7 July 2018, in response to increased fuel prices. Over time these protests evolved into demands for the resignation of president Moïse.[216]
On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was assassinated in an attack on his private residence, and First Lady Martine Moïse was hospitalized.[217] Amid the political crisis, the government of Haiti installed Ariel Henry as the acting prime minister on 20 July 2021.[218][219] On 14 August 2021, Haiti suffered another huge earthquake, with many casualties.[220] The earthquake has also damaged Haiti's economic conditions and led to a rise in gang violence which by September 2021 had escalated to a long-lasting full-blown gang war and other violent crimes within the country.[221][222] As of March 2022, Haiti still had no president, no parliamentary quorum, and a dysfunctional high court due to a lack of judges.[218] In 2022, protests against the government and rising fuel prices intensified.[223][224]
In 2023, kidnapping jumped 72% from the first quarter of the previous year.[225] Doctors, lawyers, and other wealthy members of society were kidnapped and held for ransom.[226] Many victims were killed when ransom demands were not met, leading those with the means to do so to flee the country, further hampering efforts to pull the country out of the crisis.[226] It is estimated that amidst the crisis up to 20% of qualified medical staff had left Haiti by the end of 2023.[227]
In March 2024, Ariel Henry was prevented by gangs from returning to Haiti, following a visit to Kenya.[228] Henry agreed to resign once a transitional government had been formed. As of that month, nearly half of Haiti's population was living under acute food insecurity, according to the World Food Programme.[25] On April 25, 2024, the Transitional Presidential Council took over the Governance of Haiti and is scheduled to stay in power until 2026.[229] Michel Patrick Boisvert was named interim prime minister.[229] On 3 June 2024, the council swore in Garry Conille as acting prime minister.[230] On 10 November 2024, Alix Didier Fils-Aimé replaced Conille as acting prime minister.[231]
Geography
Haiti forms the western three-eighths of Hispaniola, the second largest island in the Greater Antilles. At 27,750 km2 (10,710 sq mi) Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean behind Cuba and the Dominican Republic, the latter sharing a 360-kilometer (224 mi) border with Haiti. The country has a roughly horseshoe shape and because of this it has a disproportionately long coastline, second in length (1,771 km or 1,100 mi) behind Cuba in the Greater Antilles.[232][233]
Haiti is the most mountainous country in the Caribbean, its terrain consists of mountains interspersed with small coastal plains and river valleys.[234] The climate is tropical, with some variation depending on altitude. The highest point is Pic la Selle, at 2,680 meters (8,793 ft).[235][234][52]
The northern region or Marien Region consists of the Massif du Nord (Northern Massif) and the Plaine du Nord (Northern Plain). The Massif du Nord is an extension of the Cordillera Central in the Dominican Republic.[52] It begins at Haiti's eastern border, north of the Guayamouc River, and extends to the northwest through the northern peninsula. The lowlands of the Plaine du Nord lie along the northern border with the Dominican Republic, between the Massif du Nord and the North Atlantic Ocean.
The central region or Artibonite Region consists of two plains and two sets of mountain ranges. The Plateau Central (Central Plateau) extends along both sides of the Guayamouc River, south of the Massif du Nord. It runs from the southeast to the northwest. To the southwest of the Plateau Central are the Montagnes Noires, whose most northwestern part merges with the Massif du Nord. Haiti's most important valley in terms of crops is the Plaine de l'Artibonite, which lies between the Montagnes Noires and the Chaîne des Matheux.[52] This region supports the country's longest river, the Riviere l'Artibonite, which begins in the western region of the Dominican Republic and continues for most of its length through central Haiti, where it then empties into the Golfe de la Gonâve.[52] Also in this valley lies Haiti's second largest lake, Lac de Péligre, formed as a result of the construction of the Péligre Dam in the mid-1950s.[236]
The southern region or Xaragua Region consists of the Plaine du Cul-de-Sac (the southeast) and the mountainous southern peninsula (the Tiburon Peninsula). The Plaine du Cul-de-Sac is a natural depression that harbors the country's saline lakes, such as Trou Caïman and Haiti's largest lake, Étang Saumatre. The Chaîne de la Selle mountain range – an extension of the southern mountain chain of the Dominican Republic (the Sierra de Baoruco) – extends from the Massif de la Selle in the east to the Massif de la Hotte in the west.[52]
Haiti also includes several offshore islands. The island of Tortuga is located off the coast of northern Haiti. The arrondissement of La Gonâve is located on the island of the same name, in the Golfe de la Gonâve; Haiti's largest island, Gonâve is moderately populated by rural villagers. Île à Vache is located off the southwest coast; also part of Haiti are the Cayemites, located in the Gulf of Gonâve north of Pestel. Navassa Island, located 40 nautical miles (46 mi; 74 km) west of Jérémie on the south west peninsula of Haiti,[237] is subject to an ongoing territorial dispute with the United States, who currently administer the island.[238]
Climate
Haiti's climate is tropical with some variation depending on altitude.[234] Port-au-Prince ranges in January from an average minimum of 23 °C (73.4 °F) to an average maximum of 31 °C (87.8 °F); in July, from 25–35 °C (77–95 °F). The rainfall pattern is varied, with rain heavier in some of the lowlands and the northern and eastern slopes of the mountains. Haiti's dry season occurs from November to January.
Port-au-Prince receives an average annual rainfall of 1,370 mm (53.9 in). There are two rainy seasons, April–June and October–November. Haiti is subject to periodic droughts and floods, made more severe by deforestation. Hurricanes are a menace, and the country is also prone to flooding and earthquakes.[234]
Geology
There are blind thrust faults associated with the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault system over which Haiti lies.[239] After the earthquake of 2010, there was no evidence of surface rupture and geologists' findings were based on seismological, geological and ground deformation data.[240]
The northern boundary of the fault is where the Caribbean tectonic plate shifts eastwards by about 20 mm (0.79 inches) per year in relation to the North American Plate. The strike-slip fault system in the region has two branches in Haiti, the Septentrional-Oriente fault in the north and the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault in the south.[citation needed]
A 2007 earthquake hazard study, noted that the Enriquillo-Plantain Garden fault zone could be at the end of its seismic cycle and concluded that a worst-case forecast would involve a 7.2 Mw earthquake, similar in size to the 1692 Jamaica earthquake.[241] A study team performing a hazard assessment of the fault system recommended "high priority" historical geologic rupture studies, as the fault was fully locked and had recorded few earthquakes in the preceding 40 years.[242] The magnitude 7.0 2010 Haiti earthquake happened on this fault zone on 12 January 2010.[243]
Haiti also has rare elements such as gold, which can be found at The Mont Organisé gold mine.[244]
Haiti has no currently active volcanoes. "In the Terre-Neuve Mountains, about 12 kilometers from the Eaux Boynes, small intrusions at least as late as Oligocene and probably of Miocene age are known. No other volcanic activity of as late a date is known near any of the other warm springs."[245]
Environment
The soil erosion released from the upper catchments and deforestation have caused periodic and severe flooding, as experienced, for example, on 17 September 2004. Earlier in May that year, floods had killed over 3,000 people on Haiti's southern border with the Dominican Republic.[246]
Haiti's forests covered 60% of the country as recently as 50 years ago, but that has been halved to a current estimate of 30% tree cover. This estimate poses a stark difference from the erroneous figure of 2% which has been oft-cited in discourse concerning the country's environmental condition.[247] Haiti had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.01/10, ranking it 137th globally out of 172 countries.[248]
Scientists at the Columbia University's Center for International Earth Science Information Network and the United Nations Environment Programme are working on the Haiti Regenerative Initiative, an initiative aiming to reduce poverty and natural disaster vulnerability through ecosystem restoration and sustainable resource management.[249]
Biodiversity
Haiti is home to four ecoregions: Hispaniolan moist forests, Hispaniolan dry forests, Hispaniolan pine forests, and Greater Antilles mangroves.[250]
Despite its small size, Haiti's mountainous terrain and resultant multiple climatic zones has resulted in a wide variety of plant life.[251] Notable tree species include the breadfruit tree, mango tree, acacia, mahogany, coconut palm, royal palm and West Indian cedar.[251] The forests were formerly much more extensive, but have been subject to severe deforestation.[52]
Most mammal species are not native, having been brought to the island since colonial times.[251] However, there are various native bat species, as well as the endemic Hispaniolan hutia and Hispaniolan solenodon.[251] Whale and dolphin species can also be found off Haiti's coast.
There are over 260 species of birds, 31 endemic to Hispaniola.[252] Notable endemic species include the Hispaniolan trogon, Hispaniolan parakeet, grey-crowned tanager and the Hispaniolan Amazon.[252] There are also several raptors, as well as pelicans, ibis, hummingbirds and ducks.
Reptiles are common, with species such as the rhinoceros iguana, Haitian boa, American crocodile and gecko.[253]
Government and politics
The government of Haiti is a semi-presidential republic, a multiparty system wherein the president of Haiti is head of state and elected directly by popular elections held every five years.[52][254] The prime minister of Haiti acts as head of government and is appointed by the president, chosen from the majority party in the National Assembly.[52] Executive power is exercised by the president and prime minister who together constitute the government.[255]
Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the National Assembly of Haiti, the Senate (Sénat) and the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés).[52][234] The government is organized unitarily, thus the central government delegates powers to the departments without a constitutional need for consent. The current structure of Haiti's political system was set forth in the Constitution of Haiti on 29 March 1987.[234]
Haitian politics have been contentious: since independence, Haiti has suffered 32 coups.[256] Haiti is the only country in the Western Hemisphere to undergo a successful slave revolution; however, a long history of oppression by dictators such as François Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier has markedly affected the republic's governance and society. Since the end of the Duvalier era Haiti has been transitioning to a democratic system.[52]
Administrative divisions
Administratively, Haiti is divided into ten departments.[234] The departments are listed below, with the departmental capital cities in parentheses.
- Nord-Ouest (Port-de-Paix)
- Nord (Cap-Haïtien)
- Nord-Est (Fort-Liberté)
- Artibonite (Gonaïves)
- Centre (Hinche)
- Ouest (Port-au-Prince)
- Grand'Anse (Jérémie)
- Nippes (Miragoâne)
- Sud (Les Cayes)
- Sud-Est (Jacmel)
The departments are further divided into 42 arrondissements, 145 communes and 571 communal sections. These serve as, respectively, second- and third-level administrative divisions.[257][258][259]
Foreign relations
Haiti is a member of a wide range of international and regional organizations, such as the United Nations, CARICOM, Community of Latin American and Caribbean States, International Monetary Fund, Organisation of American States, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, OPANAL and the World Trade Organization.[234]
In February 2012, Haiti signaled it would seek to upgrade its observer status to full associate member status of the African Union (AU).[260] The AU was reported to be planning to upgrade Haiti's status from observer to associate at its June 2013 summit[261] but the application had still not been ratified by May 2016.[262]
Military
Haiti has a strong military history dating to the pre-independence struggle. The Indigenous Army is essential in the construction of the state the management of land and public finances. Up to the 20th century, every Haitian president was an officer in the army. During the US intervention, the army was remodeled as Gendarmerie d'Haiti and later on as Force Armée d'Haiti (FAdH). In the early 1990s, the army was unconstitutionally decommissioned and replaced by the Haitian National Police (PNH). In 2018, Président Jovenel Moise reactivated the FAdH.[citation needed]
Haiti's Ministry of Defense is the main body of the armed forces.[263] The former Haitian Armed Forces were demobilized in 1995; however, efforts to reconstitute it are currently underway.[264] The current defense force for Haiti is the Haitian National Police, which has a highly trained SWAT team, and works alongside the Haitian Coast Guard. In 2010, the Haitian National Police force numbered 7,000.[265]
As of 2023, the Haitian army includes one infantry battalion that is in the process of being formed, with 700 personnel.[266]
Law enforcement and crime
The legal system is based on a modified version of the Napoleonic Code.[267][52]
Haiti has consistently ranked among the most corrupt countries in the world on the Corruption Perceptions Index.[268] According to a 2006 report by the Corruption Perceptions Index, there is a strong correlation between corruption and poverty in Haiti. The republic ranked first of all countries surveyed for levels of perceived domestic corruption.[269] It is estimated that President "Baby Doc" Duvalier, his wife Michele, and their agents stole US $504 million from the treasury between 1971 and 1986.[270] Similarly, after the Haitian Army folded in 1995, the Haitian National Police (HNP) gained sole power of authority on the Haitian citizens. Many Haitians as well as observers believe that this monopolized power could have given way to a corrupt police force.[271] Some media outlets alleged that millions were stolen by former president Jean-Bertrand Aristide.[272][273][274][275] The BBC also described pyramid schemes, in which Haitians lost hundreds of millions in 2002, as the "only real economic initiative" of the Aristide years.[276]
Conversely, according to the 2013 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report, murder rates (10.2 per 100,000) are far below the regional average (26 per 100,000); less than 1/4 that of Jamaica (39.3 per 100,000) and nearly 1/2 that of the Dominican Republic (22.1 per 100,000), making it among the safer countries in the region.[277][278] In large part, this is due to the country's ability to fulfil a pledge by increasing its national police yearly by 50%, a four-year initiative that was started in 2012. In addition to the yearly recruits, the Haitian National Police (HNP) has been using innovative technologies to crack down on crime. A notable bust in recent years[when?] led to the dismantlement of the largest kidnapping ring in the country with the use of an advanced software program developed by a West Point-trained Haitian official that proved to be so effective that it has led to its foreign advisers to make inquiries.[279][280]
In 2010, the New York City Police Department (NYPD) sent a team of officers to Haiti to assist in the rebuilding of its police force with special training in investigative techniques, anti-kidnapping strategies and community outreach. It has also helped the HNP set up a police unit in Delmas, a neighborhood of Port-au-Prince.[281][282][283][284]
In 2012 and 2013, 150 HNP officers received specialized training funded by the US government, which also contributed to the infrastructure and communications support by upgrading radio capacity and constructing new police stations from the most violent-prone neighborhoods of Cité Soleil and Grande Ravine in Port-au-Prince to the new northern industrial park at Caracol.[282]
Haitian penitentiary system
Port-au-Prince penitentiary is home to half of Haiti's prisoners. The prison has a capacity of 1,200 detainees but as of November 2017[update] the penitentiary was obliged to keep 4,359 detainees, a 363% occupancy level.[285] The inability to receive sufficient funds has caused deadly cases of malnutrition, combined with the tight living conditions, increases the risk of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis.[285]
Haitian law states that once arrested, one must go before a judge within 48 hours; however, this is very rare.[citation needed] Unless families are able to provide the necessary funds for inmates to appear before a judge, there is a very slim chance the inmate would have a trial, on average, within 10 years.[286]
In confined living spaces for 22–23 hours a day, inmates are not provided with latrines and are forced to defecate into plastic bags. These conditions were considered inhumane by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in 2008.[287]
On 3 March 2024, armed gangs stormed the main prison in Port-au-Prince and around 3700 inmates escaped, while 12 people were killed.[288]
Economy
Haiti's per capita GDP is $1,800 and its GDP is $19.97 billion (2017 estimates).[234] The country uses the Haitian gourde as its currency. Despite its tourism industry, Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with corruption, political instability, poor infrastructure, lack of health care and lack of education cited as the main causes.[234] Unemployment is high and many Haitians seek to emigrate. Trade declined dramatically after the 2010 earthquake and subsequent outbreak of cholera, with the country's purchasing power parity GDP falling by 8% (from US$12.15 billion to US$11.18 billion).[4] Haiti ranked 145th of 182 countries in the 2010 United Nations Human Development Index, with 57.3% of the population being deprived in at least three of the HDI's poverty measures.[289]
Following the disputed 2000 election and accusations about President Aristide's rule,[290] US aid to the Haitian government was cut off between 2001 and 2004.[291] After Aristide's departure in 2004, aid was restored and the Brazilian army led a United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti peacekeeping operation. After almost four years of recession, the economy grew by 1.5% in 2005.[292] In September 2009, Haiti met the conditions set out by the IMF and World Bank's Heavily Indebted Poor Countries program to qualify for cancellation of its external debt.[293]
In 2015, more than 90 percent of the government's budget came from an agreement with Petrocaribe, a Venezuela-led oil alliance.[294]
Foreign aid
Haiti received more than US$4 billion in aid from 1990 to 2003, including US$1.5 billion from the United States.[295] The largest donor is the US, followed by Canada and the European Union.[296] In January 2010, following the earthquake, US President Barack Obama promised US$1.15 billion in assistance.[297] The European Union pledged more than €400 million (US$616 million).[298] Neighboring Dominican Republic has also provided extensive humanitarian aid to Haiti, including the funding and construction of a public university,[299] human capital, free healthcare services in the border region, and logistical support after the 2010 earthquake.[300]
The United Nations states that US$13.34 billion has been earmarked for post-earthquake reconstruction through 2020, though two years after the 2010 quake, less than half of that amount had actually been released. As of 2015[update], the US government has allocated US$4 billion, US$3 billion has already been spent, and the rest is dedicated to longer-term projects.[301]
Trade
According to the 2015 CIA World Factbook, Haiti's main import partners are: Dominican Republic 35%, US 26.8%, Netherlands Antilles 8.7%, China 7% (est. 2013). Haiti's main export partner is the US 83.5% (est. 2013).[302] Haiti had a trade deficit of US$3 billion in 2011, or 41% of GDP.[303]
Energy
Haiti relies heavily on an oil alliance with Petrocaribe for much of its energy requirements. In recent years, hydroelectric, solar and wind energy have been explored as possible sustainable energy sources.[304]
As of 2017, among all the countries in the Americas, Haiti is producing the least energy. Less than a quarter of the country has electric coverage.[305] Most regions of Haiti that do have energy are powered by generators. These generators are often expensive and produce a lot of pollution. The areas that do get electricity experience power cuts on a daily basis, and some areas are limited to 12 hours of electricity a day. Electricity is provided by a small number of independent companies: Sogener, E-power, and Haytrac.[306] There is no national electricity grid.[307] The most common source of energy is wood, along with charcoal. About 4 million metric tons of wood products are consumed yearly.[308] Like charcoal and wood, petroleum is also an important source of energy. Since Haiti cannot produce its own fuel, all fuel is imported. Yearly, around 691,000 tons of oil is imported into the country.[307]
In 2018, a 24-hour electricity project was announced; for this purpose 236 MW needs to installed in Port-au-Prince alone, with an additional 75 MW needed in all other regions. Presently only 27.5% of the population has access to electricity; moreover, the national energy agency l'Électricité d'Haïti (Ed'H) is only able to meet 62% of overall electricity demand.[309]
Personal income
Haiti suffers from a shortage of skilled labor, widespread unemployment, and underemployment. Most Haitians in the labor force have informal jobs. Three-quarters of the population lives on US$2 or less per day.[310]
Remittances from Haitians living abroad are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling one-fifth (20%) of GDP and more than five times the earnings from exports as of 2012.[311] In 2004, 80% or more of college graduates from Haiti were living abroad.[312]
Occasionally, families who are unable to care for children may send them to live with a wealthier family as a restavek, or house servant. In return the family are supposed to ensure that the child is educated and provided with food and shelter; however, the system is open to abuse and has proved controversial, with some likening it to child slavery.[313][314]
Real estate
In rural areas, people often live in wooden huts with corrugated iron roofs. Outhouses are located in back of the huts. In Port-au-Prince, colorful shantytowns surround the central city and go up the mountainsides.[315]
The middle and upper classes live in suburbs, or in the central part of the bigger cities in apartments, where there is urban planning. Many of the houses they live in are like miniature fortresses, located behind walls embedded with metal spikes, barbed wire, broken glass, and sometimes all three. The houses have backup generators, because the electrical grid is unreliable. Some even have rooftop reservoirs for water.[315]
Agriculture
Haiti is the world's leading producer of vetiver, a root plant used to make luxury perfumes, essential oils and fragrances, providing for half the world's supply.[316][317][318] Roughly 40–50% of Haitians work in the agricultural sector.[234][319] However, according to soil surveys by the United States Department of Agriculture in the early 1980s, only 11.3 percent of the land was highly suitable for crops. Haiti relies upon imports for half its food needs and 80% of its rice.[319]
Haiti exports crops such as mangoes, cacao, coffee, papayas, mahogany nuts, spinach, and watercress.[320] Agricultural products constitute 6% of all exports.[303] In addition, local agricultural products include maize, beans, cassava, sweet potato, peanuts, pistachios, bananas, millet, pigeon peas, sugarcane, rice, sorghum, and wood.[320][321]
Currency
The Haitian gourde (HTG) is the national currency. The "Haitian dollar" equates to 5 gourdes (goud).[citation needed] The vast majority of the business sector and individuals will also accept US dollars, though at the outdoor markets gourdes may be preferred. Locals may refer to the USD as "dollar américain" (dola ameriken) or "dollar US" (pronounced oo-es).[322]
Tourism
The tourism market in Haiti is undeveloped and the government is heavily promoting this sector. Haiti has many of the features that attract tourists to other Caribbean destinations, such as white sand beaches, mountainous scenery and a year-round warm climate. However, the country's poor image overseas, at times exaggerated, has hampered the development of this sector.[52] In 2014, the country received 1,250,000 tourists (mostly from cruise ships), and the industry generated US$200 million in 2014.[citation needed]
Several hotels were opened in 2014, including an upscale Best Western Premier,[323][324] a five-star Royal Oasis hotel by Occidental Hotel and Resorts in Pétion-Ville,[325][326][327] a four-star Marriott Hotel in the Turgeau area of Port-au-Prince[328] and other new hotel developments in Port-au-Prince, Les Cayes, Cap-Haïtien and Jacmel.[citation needed]
Caracol Industrial Park
On 21 October 2012, Haitian President Michel Martelly, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Bill Clinton, Richard Branson, Ben Stiller and Sean Penn inaugurated the 240-hectare (600-acre) Caracol industrial park, the largest in the Caribbean.[329] The project cost US$300 million and included a 10-megawatt power plant, a water-treatment plant and worker housing.[329] The plan for the park pre-dated the 2010 earthquake but was fast-tracked as part of US foreign aid strategy to help Haiti recover.[330] The park was part of a "master plan" for Haiti's North and North-East departments, including the expansion of the Cap-Haïtien International Airport to accommodate large international flights, the construction of an international seaport in Fort-Liberté and the opening of the $50 million Roi Henri Christophe Campus of a new university in Limonade (near Cap-Haïtien) on 12 January 2012.[331]
In 2012, USAID believed the park had the potential to create as many as 65,000 jobs once fully developed.[332][333] South Korean clothing manufacturer Sae-A Trading Co. Ltd, the park's only major tenant, created 5,000 permanent jobs out of the 20,000 it had projected and promised to build 5,000 houses yet only 750 homes had been built near Caracol by 2014.[330]
Ten years later, the park was considered to have failed to uphold its promise to deliver the transformation the Clintons had promised.[334] The US invested tens of millions of dollars into the port project but eventually abandoned it.[334] In order to establish the park, hundreds of families of small farmers had to be removed from the land, approximately 3,500 people overall.[335] An audit by the United States Government Accountability Office uncovered that the port project lacked "staff with technical expertise in planning, construction, and oversight of a port" and revealed that USAid hadn't constructed a port anywhere since the 1970s.[334] A USAid feasibility study in 2015 found that "a new port was not viable for a variety of technical, environmental and economic reasons", that the US was short US$72m in funds to cover the majority of the projected costs, and that private companies USAid had wanted to attract "had no interest in supporting the construction of a new port in northern Haiti".[334]
Infrastructure
Transportation
Haiti has two main highways that run from one end of the country to the other. The northern highway, Route Nationale No. 1 (National Highway One), originates in Port-au-Prince, winding through the coastal towns of Montrouis and Gonaïves, before reaching its terminus at the northern port Cap-Haïtien. The southern highway, Route Nationale No. 2, links Port-au-Prince with Les Cayes via Léogâne and Petit-Goâve. The state of Haiti's roads are generally poor, many being potholed and becoming impassable in rough weather.[52]
The port at Port-au-Prince, Port international de Port-au-Prince, has more registered shipping than any of the other dozen ports in the country. The port's facilities include cranes, large berths, and warehouses, but these facilities are not in good condition. The port is underused, possibly due to the substantially high port fees. The port of Saint-Marc is currently the preferred port of entry for consumer goods.[citation needed]
In the past, Haiti used rail transport; however, the rail infrastructure was poorly maintained when in use and cost of rehabilitation is beyond the means of the Haitian economy. In 2018 the Regional Development Council of the Dominican Republic proposed a "trans-Hispaniola" railway between both countries.[336]
Airports
Toussaint Louverture International Airport, located ten kilometers (six miles) north-northeast of Port-au-Prince proper in the commune of Tabarre, is the primary hub for entry and exit into the country. It has Haiti's main jetway, and along with Cap-Haïtien International Airport handles the vast majority of the country's international flights. Cities such as Jacmel, Jérémie, Les Cayes, and Port-de-Paix have smaller, less accessible airports that are serviced by regional airlines and private aircraft.[citation needed]
In 2013, plans for the development of an international airport on Île-à-Vache were introduced by the prime minister.[337]
In May 2024, the airport reopened following three months closure following violence, and is expected to help ease a shortage of medications and basic supplies.[338][339]
Bus service
Tap tap buses are colorfully painted buses or pick-up trucks that serve as shared taxis. The "tap tap" name comes from the sound of passengers tapping on the metal bus body to indicate they want off.[340] These vehicles for hire are often privately owned and extensively decorated. They follow fixed routes, do not leave until filled with passengers, and riders can usually disembark at any point. The decorations are a typically Haitian form of art.[341]
Communications
In Haiti, communications include the radio, television, fixed and mobile telephones, and the Internet. Haiti ranked last among North American countries in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI) – an indicator for determining the development level of a country's information and communication technologies. Haiti ranked number 143 out of 148 overall in the 2014 NRI ranking, down from 141 in 2013.[342]
Water supply and sanitation
Haiti faces key challenges in the water supply and sanitation sector. Notably, access to public services is very low, their quality is inadequate and public institutions remain very weak despite foreign aid and the government's declared intent to strengthen the sector's institutions. Foreign and Haitian NGOs play an important role in the sector, especially in rural and urban slum areas.[citation needed]
Demographics
In 2018, Haiti's population was estimated to be about 10,788,000.[234] In 2006, half of the population was younger than age 20.[343] In 1950, the first formal census gave a total population of 3.1 million.[344] Haiti averages approximately 350 people per square kilometer (910 people/sq mi), with its population concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys.
Most Haitians are descendants of black Africans who were enslaved and trafficked from Africa during the Atlantic slave trade. Many are also descendants of Mulattoes who are mixed-race.[234]
Millions of Haitian descent live abroad in the United States, Dominican Republic, Cuba, Canada (primarily Montreal), the Bahamas, France, the French Antilles, the Turks and Caicos, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. There were an estimated 881,500 people of Haitian ancestry in the United States in 2015,[345] while in the Dominican Republic there were an estimated 800,000 in 2007.[346] There were 300,000 in Cuba in 2013,[347] 100,000 in Canada in 2006,[348] 80,000 in Metropolitan France (2010),[349] and up to 80,000 in the Bahamas (2009).[350]
In 2018, the life expectancy at birth was 63.66 years.[351]
Racial discrimination
Under colonial rule, Haitian mulattoes were generally privileged above the black majority, though they possessed fewer rights than the white population. Following the country's independence, they became the nation's social elite. Numerous leaders throughout Haiti's history have been mulattoes. During this time, the enslaved persons and the affranchis were given limited opportunities toward education, income, and occupations, but even after gaining independence, the social structure remains a legacy today as the disparity between the upper and lower classes have not been reformed significantly since the colonial days.[352] Making up 5% of the nation's population, mulattoes have retained their preeminence, evident in the political, economic, social and cultural hierarchy in Haiti.[353] As a result, the elite class today consists of a small group of influential people who are generally light in color.[354]
Religion
Religion in Haiti according to the Pew Research Center (2010)[355]
The 2018 CIA World Factbook reported that 55% of Haitians were Catholics and 29% were Protestants (Baptist 15.4%, Pentecostal 7.9%, Seventh-day Adventist 3%, Methodist 1.5%, other 0.7%). Other sources put the Protestant population higher, suggesting that it might have formed one-third of the population in 2001.[356] Like other countries in Latin America, Haiti has witnessed a general Protestant expansion, which is largely Evangelical and Pentecostal in nature.[357][358][359]
Haitian Cardinal Chibly Langlois is president of the National Bishops Conference of the Catholic Church.[citation needed]
Vodou, a religion with West African roots similar to those of Cuba and Brazil, is formally practiced by 2.1% of the population; however, it is estimated that 50-80% of Haitians incorporate some elements of Vodou belief or practices into their religion, particularly with Catholicism. This reflect Vodou's colonial origins, when enslaved persons were obliged to disguise their traditional loa (lwa), or spirits, as Catholic saints, as part of a process called syncretism. As such, it is difficult to estimate the number of Vodouists in Haiti,[360][361] especially given the legacy of historic persecution and misrepresentation in popular media and culture, as well as modern stigmatization among segments of the growing Protestant population. Nonetheless, Vodou was officially recognized by the Haitian government in 2003.[234]
Reflecting the ubiquity of Vodou culture and beliefs, while many Catholics and Protestants in Haiti denounce Vodou as devil worship, they do not deny the power or existence of its spirits; rather, they are regarded as "evil" and "satanic" adversaries that require intervention through Christian prayer. Protestants view Catholic veneration of saints as idol worship, and some Protestants would often destroy statues and other Catholic paraphernalia.[362]
Minority religions in Haiti include Islam, Bahá'í Faith, Judaism, and Buddhism.[4]
Languages
The two official languages of Haiti are French and Haitian Creole. French is the principal written and administratively authorized language (as well as the main language of the press) and is spoken by 42% of Haitians.[363][364] It is spoken by all educated Haitians, is the medium of instruction in most schools, and is used in the business sector. It is also used in ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations and church Masses. Haiti is one of two independent nations in the Americas (along with Canada) to designate French as an official language; the other French-speaking areas are all overseas départements, or collectivités, of France, such as French Guiana. Haitian Creole is spoken by nearly all of the Haitian population. French, the base language for Haitian Creole, is popular among the Haitian elite and upper classes. French is also popular in the business sector, and to a far lesser degree, English due to American influence. Spanish is spoken by some Haitians who live along the Haitian-Dominican border.[365] English and Spanish may also be spoken by Haitian deportees from the United States and various Latin American countries. Overall, about 90–95% of Haitians only speak Haitian Creole and French fluently, with over half only knowing Creole.[366]
Haitian Creole,[367] locally called Kreyòl,[368] has recently undergone standardization and is spoken by virtually the entire population.[369] One of the French-based creole languages, Haitian Creole has a vocabulary overwhelmingly derived from French, but its grammar resembles that of some West African languages. It also has influences from Taino, Spanish, and Portuguese.[370] Haitian Creole is related to the other French creoles, and in particular to the Antillean and Louisiana Creole variants.[citation needed]
Emigration
There is a large Haitian diaspora community, predominantly based in the US and Canada, France, and the wealthier Caribbean islands.[citation needed]
Emigrants from Haiti have constituted a segment of American and Canadian society since before the independence of Haiti from France in 1804.[371][372] Many influential early American settlers and black freemen, including Jean Baptiste Point du Sable and W. E. B. Du Bois, were of Haitian origin.[373][374][375][376]
Education
The educational system of Haiti is based on the French system. Higher education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education,[377] is provided by universities and other public and private institutions.[378]
More than 80% of primary schools are privately managed by nongovernmental organizations, churches, communities, and for-profit operators, with minimal government oversight.[379] According to the 2013 Millennium Development Goals Report, Haiti has steadily boosted net enrollment rate in primary education from 47% in 1993 to 88% in 2011, achieving equal participation of boys and girls in education.[380] Charity organizations, including Food for the Poor and Haitian Health Foundation, are building schools for children and providing necessary school supplies. According to the 2015 World Factbook, Haiti's literacy rate is 60.7%.[citation needed]
Many reformers have advocated the creation of a free, public and universal education system for all primary school-age students in Haiti. The Inter-American Development Bank estimates that the government will need at least US$3 billion to create an adequately funded system.[381]
Upon successful graduation of secondary school, students may continue into higher education. The higher education schools in Haiti include the University of Haiti. There are also medical schools and law schools offered at both the University of Haiti and abroad. Brown University is cooperating with L'Hôpital Saint-Damien in Haiti to coordinate a pediatric health care curriculum.[382]
Health
As of 2012[update], 60% of children in Haiti under the age of 10 were vaccinated,[383][384] compared to 93–95% in other countries.[385] Recently there have been mass vaccination campaigns claiming to vaccinate as many as 91% of a target population against specific diseases (measles and rubella in this case).[386] Most people have no transportation or access to Haitian hospitals.[387]
The World Health Organization cites diarrheal diseases, HIV/AIDS, meningitis, and respiratory infections as common causes of death in Haiti.[388] Ninety percent of Haiti's children suffer from waterborne diseases and intestinal parasites.[389] HIV infection is found in 1.71% of Haiti's population (est. 2015).[390] Per a 2017 report, incidence of tuberculosis (TB) in Haiti is the highest in the region with an estimated 200 cases per 100,000 people.[391] Approximately 30,000 Haitians fall ill with malaria each year.[392]
Roughly 75% of Haitian households lack running water. Unsafe water, along with inadequate housing and unsanitary living conditions, contributes to the high incidence of infectious diseases. There is a chronic shortage of health care personnel and hospitals lack resources, a situation that became readily apparent after the January 2010 earthquake.[393] The infant mortality rate in Haiti in 2019 was 48.2 deaths per 1,000 live births, compared to 5.6 per 1,000 in the United States.[394]
After the 2010 earthquake, Partners In Health founded the Hôpital Universitaire de Mirebalais, the largest solar-powered hospital in the world.[395][396]
Largest cities
| Rank | Name | Department | Pop. | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
.jpg) Port-au-Prince  Cap-Haïtien |
1 | Port-au-Prince | Ouest | 1,234,742 |  Carrefour (in Metro P.P.)  Delmas (in Metro P.P.) | ||||
| 2 | Cap-Haïtien | Nord | 534,815 | ||||||
| 3 | Carrefour (in Metro P.P.) | Ouest | 442,156 | ||||||
| 4 | Delmas (in Metro P.P.) | Ouest | 382,920 | ||||||
| 5 | Pétion-Ville (in Metro P.P.) | Ouest | 283,052 | ||||||
| 6 | Port-de-Paix | Nord-Ouest | 250,000 | ||||||
| 7 | Croix des Bouquets (in Metro P.P.) | Ouest | 229,127 | ||||||
| 8 | Jacmel | Sud-Est | 137,966 | ||||||
| 9 | Léogâne | Ouest | 134,190 | ||||||
| 10 | Les Cayes | Sud | 125,799 | ||||||
Culture
Haiti has a lasting and unique cultural identity, blending traditional French and African customs, mixed with sizable acquirements from the Spanish and indigenous Taíno cultures.[397]
Art
Haitian art is distinctive, particularly through its paintings and sculptures.[397][398][399] Brilliant colors, naïve perspectives, and sly humor characterize Haitian art. Frequent subjects in Haitian art include big, foods, landscapes, market activities, jungle animals, rituals, dances, and gods. As a result of a deep history and strong African ties, symbols take on great meaning within Haitian society. Many artists cluster in 'schools' of painting, such as the Cap-Haïtien school, which features depictions of daily life in the city, the Jacmel School, which reflects the steep mountains and bays of that coastal town, or the Saint-Soleil School, which is characterized by abstracted human forms and is heavily influenced by Vodou symbolism.[citation needed]
In the 1920s the indigéniste movement gained international acclaim, with its expressionist paintings inspired by Haiti's culture and African roots. Notable painters of this movement include Hector Hyppolite, Philomé Oban and Préfète Duffaut.[400] Some notable artists of more recent times include Edouard Duval-Carrié, Frantz Zéphirin, Leroy Exil, Prosper Pierre Louis and Louisiane Saint Fleurant.[400] Sculpture is also practiced in Haiti; noted artists in this form include George Liautaud and Serge Jolimeau.[401]
Music and dance
Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled here. It reflects French, African and Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola, and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to Haitian culture include music derived from Vodou ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, Twoubadou ballads, mini-jazz rock bands, Rasin movement, Hip hop kreyòl, méringue,[402] and compas. Youth attend parties at nightclubs called discos, and attend Bal (ball, as in a formal dance).
Compas (konpa)[403] is a complex, ever-changing music that arose from African rhythms and European ballroom dancing, mixed with Haiti's bourgeois culture. It is a refined music, with méringue as its basic rhythm. Haiti had no recorded music until 1937 when Jazz Guignard was recorded non-commercially.[404]
Literature
Haiti has always been a literary nation that has produced poetry, novels, and plays of international recognition. The French colonial experience established the French language as the venue of culture and prestige, and since then it has dominated the literary circles and the literary production. However, since the 18th century there has been a sustained effort to write in Haitian Creole. The recognition of Creole as an official language has led to an expansion of novels, poems, and plays in Creole.[405] In 1975, Franketienne was the first to break with the French tradition in fiction with the publication of Dezafi, the first novel written entirely in Haitian Creole.[406] Other well known Haitian authors include Jean Price-Mars, Jacques Roumain, Jacques Stephen Alexis, Marie Vieux-Chauvet, Pierre Clitandre, René Depestre, Edwidge Danticat, Lyonel Trouillot and Dany Laferrière.
Cinema
Haiti has a small though growing cinema industry. Well-known directors working primarily in documentary film-making include Raoul Peck and Arnold Antonin. Directors producing fictional films include Patricia Benoît, Wilkenson Bruna and Richard Senecal.
Cuisine
Haiti is famous for its creole cuisine (related to Cajun cuisine), and its soup joumou.[407]
Architecture
Monuments include the Sans-Souci Palace and the Citadelle Laferrière, inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1982.[408] Situated in the Northern Massif du Nord, in the National History Park, the structures date from the early 19th century.[409] The buildings were among the first built after Haiti's independence from France. The Citadelle Laferrière, the largest fortress in the Americas, is located in northern Haiti. It was built between 1805 and 1820 and is today referred to by some Haitians as the eighth wonder of the world.[105]
The Institute for the Protection of National Heritage has preserved 33 historical monuments and the historic center of Cap-Haïtien.[410]
Jacmel, a colonial city that was tentatively accepted as a World Heritage Site, was extensively damaged by the 2010 earthquake.[409]
Museums
The anchor of Christopher Columbus's largest ship, the Santa María rests in the Musée du Panthéon National Haïtien (MUPANAH), in Port-au-Prince.[411]
Folklore and mythology
Haiti is known for its folklore traditions.[412] Much of this is rooted in Haitian Vodou tradition. Belief in zombies is also common.[413] Other folkloric creatures include the lougarou.[413]
National holidays and festivals
The Haitian Carnival has been one of the most popular carnivals in the Caribbean. In 2010, the government decided to stage the event in a different city outside Port-au-Prince every year.[414][415] The National Carnival follows the popular Jacmel Carnival, which takes place a week earlier in February or March.[414]
Rara is a festival celebrated before Easter. The festival has generated a style of Carnival music.[416][417]
Sports
Football (soccer) is the most popular sport in Haiti with hundreds of small clubs competing at the local level. Basketball and baseball are growing in popularity.[418][419] Stade Sylvio Cator is the multi-purpose stadium in Port-au-Prince, currently used mostly for association football matches. In 1974, the Haiti national football team were only the second Caribbean team to make the World Cup. The national team won the 2007 Caribbean Nations Cup.[420]
Haiti has participated in the Olympic Games since the year 1900 and won a number of medals. Haitian footballer Joe Gaetjens played for the United States national team in the 1950 FIFA World Cup, scoring the winning goal in the 1–0 upset of England.[421]
See also
Notes
- ^ a b c The National Assembly currently has zero members, with all 30 seats in the Senate and all 119 seats in the Chamber of Deputies vacant since all previous members have served their terms as prescribed by the Haitian Constitution and no election has been held to fill those vacated seats.
- ^ /ˈheɪti/ ⓘ HAY-tee; French: Haïti [a.iti] ⓘ; Haitian Creole: Ayiti [ajiti]
- ^ French: République d'Haïti; Haitian Creole: Repiblik d Ayiti[12]
- ^ a b The nation was officially founded as Hayti in its Declaration of Independence and early prints,[13][14] constitutions,[15] and imperial declarations.[16] Published writings of 1802–1919 in the United States commonly used the name Hayti (e.g. The Blue Book of Hayti (1919), a book with official standing in Haiti). By 1873 Haiti was common among titles of US published books as well as in US congressional publications. In all of Frederick Douglass' publications after 1890, he used Haiti. As late as 1949, the name Hayti continued to be used in books published in England (e.g. Hayti: 145 Years of Independence—The Bi-Centenary of Port-au-Prince published in London, England in 1949) but by 1950, usage in England had shifted to Haiti.[17]
- ^ The Taínos may have used Bohío as another name for the island.[39][40][41]
References
- ^ "Konstitisyon Repiblik d Ayiti" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ "Article 4 of the Constitution". Haiti-reference.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2019. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "After The Group Of G8, Now Come G30 Headed By Louko Desir". Haiti Observer. Archived from the original on 2 September 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2018.
- ^ a b c "Haiti". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 22 September 2021. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
- ^ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050". Pew Research Center. 21 December 2022. Archived from the original on 27 February 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2020.
- ^ Robles, Frances (10 November 2024). "Haitian Prime Minister Is Fired, Adding to the Nation's Turmoil". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
- ^ "Country Summary". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 17 August 2023. Retrieved 1 September 2023 – via CIA.gov.
- ^ "Haiti". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Haiti)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Archived from the original on 22 October 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2023.
- ^ "Haiti Overview: Development news, research, data". Retrieved 14 November 2024.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2021/2022" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 8 September 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
- ^ "Konstitisyon Repiblik Ayiti 1987". Ufdc.ufl.edu. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Catalogue description Haitian Declaration of Independence". 1 January 1804. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2020 – via National Archive of the UK.
- ^ "National Archives – Haiti" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 January 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2023.
- ^ La Constitution Impériale du 20 mai 1805[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Remember Haiti | Revolution | Royaume d'Hayti. Déclaration du roi". brown.edu. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
- ^ Corbett, Bob, ed. (9 November 2003). "17201: Corbett: Hayti and Haiti in the English language". Webster University. Archived from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
- ^ a b Dardik, Alan, ed. (2016). Vascular Surgery: A Global Perspective. Springer. p. 341. ISBN 978-3-319-33745-6. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
- ^ a b Josh, Jagran, ed. (2016). "Current Affairs November 2016 eBook". p. 93. Retrieved 8 May 2017.
- ^ "World Population Prospects 2022". United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ "World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100" (XSLX) ("Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)"). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
- ^ André, Vania (16 June 2024). "6 Fast facts about Haiti and the Caribbean you should know". The Haitian Times. Retrieved 8 October 2024.
- ^ Lawler, Andrew (23 December 2020). "Invaders nearly wiped out Caribbean's first people long before Spanish came, DNA reveals". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 23 December 2020.
- ^ Davies, Arthur (1953). "The Loss of the Santa Maria Christmas Day, 1492". The American Historical Review: 854–865. doi:10.1086/ahr/58.4.854. ISSN 0002-8762.
- ^ a b "Haïti histoire – 7 Bord de Mer de Limonade". Nilstremmel.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
- ^ Danticat, Edwidge (2005). "Anacaona, Golden Flower". Journal of Haitian Studies. 11 (2). New York: Scholastic Inc.: 163–165. ISBN 978-0-439-49906-4. JSTOR 41715319.
- ^ Matthewson, Tim (1996). "Jefferson and the Nonrecognition of Haiti". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 140 (1): 22–48. ISSN 0003-049X. JSTOR 987274.
- ^ "Country profile: Haiti". BBC News. 19 January 2010. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
- ^ Benjamin Beede (1994). The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898–1934: An Encyclopedia (May 1, 1994 ed.). Routledge; 1 edition. pp. 784. ISBN 0-8240-5624-8. - p 223
The Haitian and U.S. governments reached a mutually satisfactory agreement in the Executive Accord of August 7, 1933, and on August 15, the last marines departed. - ^ Shellenberger, Michael (22 September 2022). "Haiti Riots Triggered By IMF Advice To Cut Fuel Subsidies". Forbes. Archived from the original on 22 October 2022. Retrieved 18 October 2022.
- ^ "OAS – Member State: Haiti". oas.org. OAS – Organization of American States: Democracy for peace, security, and development. 1 August 2009. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
- ^ "Association of Caribbean States (1994–2014)" (PDF). 2014. p. 46. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved 25 April 2016.
- ^ "International Monetary Fund: List of Members". imf.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
- ^ "WTO ¦ World Trade Organization: Members and Observers". wto.org. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
- ^ Taylor, Luke (18 October 2022). "Haiti on verge of collapse, NGOs warn as UN talks on restoring order continue". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 24 October 2022.
- ^ Taylor, Luke (11 January 2023). "Haiti left with no elected government officials as it spirals towards anarchy". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
- ^ Charles, Jacqueline (3 May 2023). "As violence in Haiti worsens, Canada bets on assistance to police". Miami Herald. Archived from the original on 3 May 2023. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
- ^ Haydn, Joseph; Vincent, Benjamin (1860). A Dictionary of Dates Relating to All Ages and Nations: For Universal Reference Comprehending Remarkable Occurrences, Ancient and Modern, The Foundation, Laws, and Governments of Countries-Their Progress In Civilization, Industry, Arts and Science-Their Achievements In Arms-And Their Civil, Military, And Religious Institutions, And Particularly of the British Empire. p. 321. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ Guitar, Lynne; Ferbel-Azcárate, Pedro; Estevez, Jorge (2006). "iii: Ocama-Daca Taíno (Hear me, I am Taíno)". Indigenous Resurgence in the Contemporary Caribbean. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-8204-7488-5. LCCN 2005012816. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
- ^ Edmond, Louisket (2010). The Tears of Haiti. Xlibris. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-4535-1770-3. LCCN 2010908468. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
- ^ Senauth, Frank (2011). The Making and Destruction of Haiti. Bloomington, Indiana, US: AuthorHouse. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-4567-5384-9. LCCN 2011907203. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 10 July 2015.
- ^ Martineau, Harriet (2010). The Hour and the Man: A Fictional Account of the Haitian Revolution and the life of Toussaint L'Ouverture. Aruba Heritage Foundation. p. 12. ISBN 978-99904-1-167-6. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
- ^ Stein, Gail (2003). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Learning French. Alpha Books. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-59257-055-3.
- ^ "How to Say: Haiti and Port-au-Prince". BBC. Archived from the original on 19 November 2014. Retrieved 19 November 2014.
- ^ Eldin, F. (1878). "Haïti, 13 ans de séjour aux Antilles" [Haiti, 13 years of stay in the Antilles] (in French). p. 33. Archived from the original on 15 January 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2015.
- ^ "Voyage a Saint-Domingue, pendant les années 1788, 1789 et 1790" [Travel to Santo Domingo, during the years 1788, 1789 and 1790] (in French). 1797. Retrieved 31 March 2018.
- ^ Fernandes, Daniel M.; Sirak, Kendra A.; Ringbauer, Harald; Sedig, Jakob; Rohland, Nadin; Cheronet, Olivia; Mah, Matthew; Mallick, Swapan; Olalde, Iñigo; Culleton, Brendan J.; Adamski, Nicole; Bernardos, Rebecca; Bravo, Guillermo; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Callan, Kimberly (4 February 2021). "A genetic history of the pre-contact Caribbean". Nature. 590 (7844): 103–110. Bibcode:2021Natur.590..103F. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-03053-2. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 7864882. PMID 33361817.
- ^ Cassá, Roberto (1992). Los Indios de Las Antillas. Editorial Abya Yala. pp. 126–. ISBN 978-84-7100-375-1. Archived from the original on 11 January 2024. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ^ Wilson, Samuel M. (1990). Hispaniola: Caribbean Chiefdoms in the Age of Columbus. University of Alabama Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-8173-0462-1.
- ^ Royal, Robert (Spring 1992). "1492 and Multiculturalism". The Intercollegiate Review. 27 (2): 3–10. Archived from the original on 16 February 2009.
- ^ Ober, Frederick Albion, ed. (1906). Columbus the Discoverer. Harper & Brothers Publishers New York and London. p. 96. Retrieved 2 December 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd ""Haiti"". Archived from the original on 15 September 2023. Retrieved 5 September 2019.
- ^ a b c Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 10.
- ^ "What Became of the Taíno?". Smithsonian. October 2011. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
- ^ Koplow, David A. (2004). Smallpox: The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24220-3.
- ^ "History of Smallpox – Smallpox Through the Ages". Texas Department of State Health Services. Archived from the original on 24 September 2019. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Graves, Kerry A. (2002). Haiti. Capstone. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-7368-1078-4.
- ^ "Laws of Burgos, 1512–1513". Faculty.smu.edu. Archived from the original on 6 June 2019. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Encomienda (Spanish policy)". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Knight, Franklin, The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 3rd edn, p. 54, New York, Oxford University Press 1990.
- ^ Ducoin, Jacques (2013). Bertrand d'Ogeron, 1613–1676 : fondateur de la colonie de Saint-Domingue et gouverneur des flibustiers. Brest: Télégramme. ISBN 978-2-84833-294-9. OCLC 849870919.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 11.
- ^ "Dominican Republic – The first colony". Country Studies. Library of Congress; Federal Research Division. Archived from the original on 13 December 2010. Retrieved 19 June 2006.
- ^ Walter E. Kretchik (2016). "1. Haitian Culture and Military Power". Eyewitness to Chaos: Personal Accounts of the Intervention in Haiti, 1994. University of Nebraska Press. p. 6.
the French colony's seven thousand plantations to produce 40 percent of France's foreign trade, nearly double the production of all British colonies combined
- ^ Coupeau, Steeve (2008). The History of Haiti. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-313-34089-5. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ "Immigration History of Canada". Faculty.marianopolis.edu. Archived from the original on 16 December 2007. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ a b c Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 12.
- ^ a b Farmer, Paul (15 April 2004). "Who removed Aristide?". Archived from the original on 8 June 2008. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
- ^ Kiple, Kenneth F. (2002). The Caribbean Slave: A Biological History. Cambridge University Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-521-52470-4. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ^ Stinchcombe, Arthur L. (11 December 1995). Sugar Island Slavery in the Age of Enlightenment: The Political Economy of the Caribbean World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-2200-3. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
- ^ Journal of Haitian Studies. Haitian Studies Association. 2001. p. 67. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 23 March 2018.
- ^ "Decree of the National Convention of 4 February 1794, Abolishing Slavery in all the Colonies". Chnm.gmu.edu. Archived from the original on 3 June 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "1784–1800 – The United States and the Haitian Revolution". History.state.gov. Archived from the original on 20 September 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Joseph, Raymond A. (22 March 1987). "Poles in Haiti". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "John Adams Supports Toussaint Louverture, Horrifies Jefferson". 29 March 2017. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 25 November 2021.
- ^ a b Scheina, Robert L. (2003). Latin America's Wars: Volume 1. Potomac Books.
- ^ Avengers of the New World: The Story of the Haitian Revolution. Harvard University Press. 2009. p. 182.
- ^ Corbett, Bob. "The Haitian Revolution of 1791–1803". Webster University. Archived from the original on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 19 October 2013.
- ^ Smucker, Glenn R. (December 1989). Richard A. Haggerty (ed.). A Country Study: Haiti. Library of Congress Federal Research Division. Toussaint Louverture. Archived from the original on 2 May 2009. Retrieved 2 November 2007.
- ^ "Haitian Revolution: A YPT Guide". Young Pioneer Tours. 7 March 2020. Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ "The History of the United States' First Refugee Crisis". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 June 2022. Retrieved 10 June 2022.
In spite of all this paranoia, however, South Carolina actually lifted its ban on foreign slaves in 1804, and all those who arrived from Saint-Domingue eventually settled there. According to Dessens, many were even welcomed quite warmly. This was especially true for the 8,000 or so of the 25,000 refugees who shared both skin color and a common religion with their American counterparts.
- ^ Frasier, Flora (2009). Venus of Empire:The Life of Pauline Bonaparte. John Murray.
- ^ "The Haitian Debacle: Yellow Fever and the Fate of the French". Montana State University. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Adam Hochschild (30 May 2004). "Birth of a Nation / Has the bloody 200-year history of Haiti doomed it to more violence?". San Francisco Chronicle. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 13.
- ^ Jackson, Maurice; Bacon, Jacqueline (2010). "Fever and Fret: The Haitian Revolution and African American Responses". In Jackson, Maurice; Bacon, Jacqueline (eds.). African Americans and the Haitian Revolution: Selected Essays and Historical Documents. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-72613-4. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
...the momentous struggle that began in 1791 and yielded the first post-colonial independent black nation and the only nation to gain independence through slave rebellion.
- ^ C.L.R. James, Black Jacobins (London: Seckur & Warburg, 1938)
- ^ "The Haitian Revolution and the Louisiana Purchase". The Gazette. 10 June 2021. Archived from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ Clodfelter, Micheal (23 May 2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015, 4th ed. McFarland. ISBN 9780786474707. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2023.
French losses from 1830–51 were 3,336 killed in battle and 92,329 died of wounds or from all other causes. Between 1830 and 1870, 411 French officers were killed and 1,360 were wounded. The toll for the ranks was an estimated 10,000 killed and 35,000 wounded in all French colonial campaigns. A few thousand from this number died in Mexico or Indochina, but the great bulk met their deaths in Algeria. Disease took an even greater toll. One estimate puts total French and Foreign Legion deaths from battle and disease for the entire century at 110,000.
- ^ Scheina. Latin America's Wars. Potomac Books. p. 1772.
- ^ Wilson, Colin; Wilson, Damon (2015). An End To Murder: Human beings have always been cruel, savage and murderous. Is all that about to change?.
- ^ Christer Petley, White Fury: A Jamaican Slaveholder and the Age of REvolution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 182.
- ^ ""A Brief History of Dessalines", 1825 Missionary Journal". Webster University. Archived from the original on 28 December 2005. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 209.
- ^ Constitution of Haiti [ [sic]] New-York Evening Post 15 July 1805.
- ^ Monthly Magazine and British Register. Vol. XLVIII. R. Phillips. 1819. p. 335. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ^ Boyce Davies, Carole (2008). Encyclopedia of the African Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture. A-C. Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. p. 380. ISBN 978-1-85109-700-5.
- ^ Popkin, Jeremy D. (15 February 2010). Facing Racial Revolution: Eyewitness Accounts of the Haitian Insurrection. University of Chicago Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-226-67585-5. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
- ^ Popkin, Jeremy D. (11 February 2011). The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801–1804. University of Alabama Press. p. 322. ISBN 978-0-8173-1732-4. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
- ^ "The United States and the Haitian Revolution, 1791–1804". history.state.gov. Archived from the original on 20 February 2021. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
- ^ "From Saint-Domingue to Louisiana, The African-American Migration Experience". Inmotionaame.org. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "In Congo Square: Colonial New Orleans". Thenation.com. 10 December 2008. Archived from the original on 14 September 2018. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haitians". Center for Cultural & Eco-Tourism, University of Louisiana. Archived from the original on 25 July 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Sontag, Deborah. "News about Haiti, including commentary and archival articles published in The New York Times". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 February 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
- ^ a b "Haiti's Citadelle Described As 8th Wonder of the World". United Press International. 29 January 1978. p. 40. Retrieved 21 October 2014 – via Reading Eagle.
- ^ Bell, Madison Smartt (10 June 2009). Toussaint L'Ouverture: A Biography. New York: Pantheon, 2007 (Vintage Books, 2008). ISBN 978-1-4000-7935-3.
- ^ Sutherland, Claudia E. (16 July 2007). Haitian Revolution (1791–1804). Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
- ^ Peguero, Valentina (November 1998). "Teaching the Haitian Revolution: Its Place in Western and Modern World History". The History Teacher. 32 (1): 33–41. doi:10.2307/494418. JSTOR 494418. S2CID 141205471.
- ^ Thompson, Krista A (Fall 2007). "Preoccupied with Haiti: The Dream of Diaspora in African American Art, 1915–1942". American Art. 21 (3): 74–97. doi:10.1086/526481. JSTOR 10.1086/526481. S2CID 161805052.
- ^ Bushnell, David; Lester Langley, eds. (2008). Simón Bolívar: essays on the life and legacy of the liberator. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-7425-5619-5.
- ^ "La Reconquista: Batalla de Palo Hincado (La Reconquista: Battle of Palo Hincado) (In Spanish)". Mi país: Historia (My Country). 29 July 2010. Archived from the original on 30 June 2018. Retrieved 11 September 2010.
- ^ Sagás, Ernesto (14 October 1994). "An apparent contradiction? Popular perceptions of Haiti and the foreign policy of the Dominican Republic". Sixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 19 August 2007.
- ^ "Dominican Republic – History". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Jean-Pierre Boyer (President of Haiti)". Britannica.com. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Corbett, Bob (July 1995). "1820 – 1843: The rule of Jean-Pierre Boyer". Webster University. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Firire, Girard Alphonse (27 August 1999). "Haiti And Its Diaspora: New Historical, Cultural And Economic Frontiers, reprint from US Gazette Philadelphia, 1824". Webster.edu. Archived from the original on 10 September 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "La première ambassade française en Haïti". Menu Contenu Plan du siteAmbassade de France à Port-au-Prince (in French). Government of France. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 27 October 2017.
- ^ M. Degros, Création des postes diplomatiques et consulaires, Revue d'histoire diplomatique, 1986; in French
- ^ J-F. Brière, Haïti et la France, 1804–1848 : le rêve brisé, Paris, Karthala 2008; in French
- ^ Henley, Jon (14 January 2010). "Haiti: a long descent to hell". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bethell, Leslie (1984). The Cambridge History of Latin America: Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. pp. 267–69.
- ^ a b c
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. Neale Publishing Company. pp. 197–198. Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
- ^ a b c d This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. Neale Publishing Company. pp. 202–204. Archived from the original on 18 December 2022. Retrieved 9 February 2018.
- ^ Rogozinski, Jan (1999). A Brief History of the Caribbean (Revised ed.). New York: Facts on File, Inc. p. 220. ISBN 0-8160-3811-2.
- ^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). "Chapter XVI". Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. Neale Publishing Company. pp. 211–216. Archived from the original on 9 November 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2019.
- ^ Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors by Jacques Nicolas Léger, University of Michigan, 2006, 235–236
- ^ This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: Léger, Jacques Nicolas (1907). "Chapter XXII". Haiti: Her History and Her Detractors. New York; Washington: Neale Publishing Company. pp. 245–247. Archived from the original on 12 November 2022. Retrieved 8 September 2019.
- ^ Jacques Nicolas Léger (1907). Haiti, Her History and Her Detractors. New York: Neale Publishing Company. p. 249.
- ^ "Hurry Election Of Simon In Haiti; Followers Fear Delay May Cause Disorders And Invite Intervention From United States" Archived 4 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine New York Times 8 December 1908
- ^ "Simon Elected President; Following Action by Haitian Congress, He Is Recognized By The United States" Archived 9 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times 18 December 1908
- ^ "Leconte in Haiti's Capital; Revolutionary Leader Takes Possession of National Palace" (PDF). The New York Times. 8 August 1911. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- ^ Hayes, Carlton H.; Edward M. Sait (December 1912). "Record of Political Events". Political Science Quarterly. 27 (4): 752. doi:10.2307/2141264. JSTOR 2141264.
- ^ Kaplan, U.S. Imperialism in Latin America, p. 61.
- ^ Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34 Archived 23 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine, US Department of State
- ^ a b c d e f g Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 15.
- ^ Office of the Historian, U.S. Government. U.S. Invasion and Occupation of Haiti, 1915–34 Archived 4 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Millett, Allan Reed (1991). Semper Fidelis: The History of the United States Marine Corps. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. 185. ISBN 9780029215968. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 8 September 2019.
- ^ Schmidt, Hans (1971). The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934. Rutgers University Press. p. 99. ISBN 9780813522036.
- ^ Heinl 1996, pp. 454–455.
- ^ Danticat, Edwidge (28 July 2015), New Yorker Magazine.
- ^ Henl, pp. 454–455.
- ^ Angulo, A. J. (2010). "Education During the American Occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934". Historical Studies in Education. 22 (2): 1–17. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Munro, Dana G. (1969). "The American Withdrawal from Haiti, 1929–1934". The Hispanic American Historical Review. 49 (1): 1–26. doi:10.2307/2511314. JSTOR 2511314.
- ^ Renda, Mary (2001). Taking Haiti: Military Occupation and the Culture of U.S. Imperialism 1915–1940. Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press. pp. 15.
- ^ "An Iconic Image of Haitian Liberty". The New Yorker. 28 July 2015. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
- ^ Schmidt 1971, p. 102
- ^ Farmer, Paul (2003). The Uses of Haiti. Common Courage Press. p. 98.
- ^ Farmer, Paul (2006). AIDS and Accusation: Haiti and the Geography of Blame. California University Press. pp. 180–181. ISBN 978-0-520-24839-7.
- ^ Wucker, Michele. "Why the Cocks Fight: Dominicans, Haitians and the Struggle for Hispaniola". Windows on Haiti. Archived from the original on 31 August 2018. Retrieved 26 December 2007.
- ^ Malone, David (1998). Decision-making in the UN Security Council: The Case of Haiti, 1990–1997. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-829483-2. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
- ^ "Antoine Louis Leocardie Elie Lescot". Archived from the original on 24 May 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.
- ^ Dr Erik Goldstein, Routledge, 2005, Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991, p. 217.
- ^ Dr Erik Goldstein, Routledge, 2005, Wars and Peace Treaties: 1816 to 1991, p. 218.
- ^ "Founding Member States". United Nations. Archived from the original on 21 November 2009. Retrieved 28 June 2017.
- ^ "League of Nations Photo Archive – First Assembly, Geneva, November 15- December 18, 1920". indiana.edu. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ Hall, Michael R., ed. (2012). Historical Dictionary of Haiti. Scarecrow Press. p. 255. ISBN 978-0-8108-7810-5. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 22 June 2017.
- ^ Clammer, Paul, ed. (2016). Haiti. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 16. ISBN 9781841629230. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
- ^ Raymond, Prospery (26 July 2013). "Tourism can help Haiti return to its halcyon days". guardian.co.uk. London. Archived from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 17.
- ^ Bryan, Patrick E. (1984). The Haitian Revolution and Its Effects. Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-435-98301-7. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
- ^ "François Duvalier". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ Štraus, Stane. "Biographies: François Duvalier (1907–1971)". PolymerNotes.org. Archived from the original on 11 July 2015.
- ^ Shaw, Karl (2005) [2004]. Power Mad! [Šílenství mocných] (in Czech). Praha: Metafora. p. 52. ISBN 978-80-7359-002-4.
- ^ Clammer, Paul (1 February 2014). "Is Haiti The Caribbean's Best New Destination?". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
- ^ Abrams, Elliott (November 2014). "Getting Rid of Baby Doc". Commentary. 138: 27–30. ISSN 0010-2601. Archived from the original on 11 August 2018. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
- ^ "'Things in Haiti must change,' pope tells Duvalier". The Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. 10 March 1983. p. 15. ISSN 1064-7317. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2019.
The Roman Catholic pontiff responded with a stern lecture to the island country's tiny moneyed elite, telling the 31-year-old president-for-life of the Western Hemisphere's poorest country, 'Things must change in Haiti.' ... 'I call on all those who have power, riches and culture so that they can understand the serious and urgent responsibility to help their brothers and sisters,' [Pope John Paul II] said.
- ^ "Valbrun, Marjorie (28 January 2011). "'Baby Doc' Duvalier missed Haiti. That's why he came back". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 20 July 2019. Retrieved 29 December 2017.
- ^ Wilentz, Amy, ed. (2013). Farewell, Fred Voodoo: A Letter from Haiti. Simon and Schuster. p. 13. ISBN 9781451643978. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
- ^ Whitney, Kathleen Marie (1996), "Sin, Fraph, and the CIA: U.S. Covert Action in Haiti", Southwestern Journal of Law and Trade in the Americas, Vol. 3, Issue 2 (1996), pp. 303–32, esp. p. 319.
- ^ Carter, Jimmy (30 September 1990). "Haiti's Election Needs Help". Carter Center. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ a b IACHR, Report on the Situation of Human Tights in Haiti Archived 28 July 2020 at the Wayback Machine, OEA/Ser.L/V/II.74 doc. 9 rev. 1, 7 September 1988
- ^ Americas Watch Committee (U.S.), National Coalition for Haitian Refugees, Caribbean Rights (Organization). The More things change-- human rights in Haiti Archived 28 June 2024 at the Wayback Machine, Human Rights Watch, 1989. pp. 96–8.
- ^ Rohter, Larry, ed. (15 November 1991). "Ex-Ruler of Haiti Faces Human Rights Suit in U.S." The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 February 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2019.
- ^ Anthony Payne and Paul K. Sutton (1993), Modern Caribbean politics. JHU Press, 1993. p90
- ^ Collins, Edward Jr., Cole, Timothy M. (1996), "Regime Legitimation in Instances of Coup-Caused Governments-in-Exile: The Cases of Presidents Makarios and Aristide", Journal of International Law & Practice 5(2), p 220.
- ^ "Activities by Country: Haiti". The Carter Center. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
- ^ Manegol, Catherine S. (16 October 1994). "For Aristide's Followers, Every Step Is a Dance, Every Cheer a Song". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Bell, Beverly (2013). Fault Lines: Views across Haiti's Divide. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. pp. 30–38. ISBN 978-0-8014-7769-0.
- ^ "Hurricane Gordon 1994". Hurricane Central. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
- ^ "Hurricane Gordon 1994". NOAA. Archived from the original on 7 October 2016. Retrieved 4 October 2016.
- ^ Haiti: Elections held in 1995 Archived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Inter-Parliamentary Union
- ^ Nohlen, D (2005) Elections in the Americas: A data handbook, Volume I, p392 ISBN 978-0-19-928357-6
- ^ Hallward, P. (2007). Damming the Flood:Haiti, Aristide, and the Politics of containment. London, UK: Verso Books. pp. xiii, 78–79.
- ^ a b c d Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 19.
- ^ Buss, Terry F.; Gardner, Adam (2009). Haiti in the Balance: Why Foreign Aid Has Failed and What We Can Do about It. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 978-0-8157-0164-4.
- ^ "Aristide Kidnapped by US Forces?". Globalpolicy.org. 1 March 2004. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Exclusive: Aristide and His Bodyguard Describe the U.S. Role In His Ouster". Democracynow.org. 16 March 2004. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Buschschluter, Vanessa (16 January 2010). "The long history of troubled ties between Haiti and the US". BBC News. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ a b c Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 20.
- ^ Varner, Bill (25 August 2005). "Haitian Gangs Seek Truce That Would Ease Elections". Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 16 September 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Klarreich, Kathie (13 June 2012). "Will the United Nations' legacy in Haiti be all about scandal?". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
- ^ Thompson, Ginger (10 February 2006). "Candidate of Haiti's Poor Leads in Early Tally With 61% of Vote". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 April 2014.
- ^ "Photo Gallery: Jeanne hits Haiti". Orlando Sentinel. Archived from the original on 5 May 2009. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
- ^ "UN seeks almost US$108 million for Haiti floods". USA Today. 10 September 2008. Archived from the original on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Preval declared Haiti poll winner". BBC News. 16 February 2006. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
- ^ "Haiti's government falls after food riots". Reuters. 12 April 2008. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
- ^ "Magnitude 7.0 – Haiti Region". Archived from the original on 15 January 2010. Retrieved 12 January 2010.
- ^ "Haiti Earthquake Fast Facts". CNN. 12 December 2013. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
- ^ Archibold, Randal C. (13 January 2011). "Haiti: Quake's Toll Rises to 316,000". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
- ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2 February 2024). "What were the world's deadliest earthquakes?". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 10 April 2023. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
- ^ Sontag, Deborah. "In Haiti, Global Failures on a Cholera Epidemic". Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 21 June 2015.
- ^ "A year of indecision leaves Haiti recovery at a standstill". Oxfam.org. 6 January 2011. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Gladstone, Rick (27 June 2017). "U.N. Brought Cholera to Haiti. Now It Is Fumbling Its Effort to Atone". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 12 January 2018.
- ^ a b c Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 21.
- ^ "Haiti – Inauguration : Michel Martelly, 56th President of Haiti". Haitilibre.com. 14 May 2011. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Ginger Thompson (19 January 2011). "Aristide Says He Is Ready to Follow Duvalier Back to Haiti". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022.
- ^ "Jean-Claude Duvalier, former Haitian dictator, dies aged 63". The Guardian. 4 October 2014. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 17 April 2016.
- ^ Kushner, Jacob (17 January 2011). "Haiti's 'Baby Doc' in surprise return from exile". Salon. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 27 May 2013.
- ^ Gifford, Lord Anthony (2012). "Formulating the Case for Reparations". Colonialism, Slavery, Reparations and Trade: Remedying The 'Past'?. Routledge. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-136-59792-3. Archived from the original on 28 June 2024. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ "Slavery reparations: Blood money". The Economist. 5 October 2013. Archived from the original on 4 December 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
- ^ Robles, Frances (7 February 2016). "Michel Martelly, Haiti's President, Departs Without a Successor". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2016.
- ^ Guyler Delva, Joseph (25 April 2016). "Haiti says election could drag on for months, protests grow". Reuters. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
- ^ "Haiti – FLASH : The elections of October 9 postponed". Haiti Libre. 5 October 2016. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ @cep_haiti (28 November 2016). "Résultats préliminaires des élections présidentielles du 20 Novembre 2016 pic.twitter.com/i9GsrkkU8p" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
- ^ Brice, Makini (29 November 2016). "Businessman Moise wins Haiti election in first round – provisional results". Reuters. Port-au-Prince. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 16 November 2017.
- ^ "Haiti: Thousands protest against corruption". Deutsche Welle. 8 February 2019. Archived from the original on 9 September 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
- ^ "Official: Haiti President Jovenel Moïse assassinated at home". AP NEWS. 7 July 2021. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
- ^ a b "Haiti – Background". The World Factbook. CIA. 15 June 2022. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
- ^ Hu, Caitlin; Gallón, Natalie; Rivers, Matt; Dupain, Etant (19 July 2021). "Haiti's acting prime minister Claude Joseph to step down amid power struggle after president's assassination". CNN. Archived from the original on 19 July 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ "Haiti struck by deadly 7.2-magnitude earthquake". BBC News. 14 August 2021. Archived from the original on 14 August 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2021.
- ^ Cavallo, Eduardo; Laura Giles Álvarez; Andrew Powell (28 September 2021). "Estimating the Potential Economic Impact of Haiti's 2021 Earthquake". IDB. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
- ^ "Haiti facing stalled elections, kidnapping surge, rampant insecurity". UN News. United Nations. 4 October 2021. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
- ^ "Haiti suffers deadly demonstrations against rise in fuel prices". Le Monde. 17 September 2022. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
- ^ "Haiti reaches a breaking point as the economy tanks and violence soars". PBS. 4 October 2022. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2022.
- ^ Phillips, Tom (21 March 2023). "UN calls for foreign intervention in Haiti as violence surges". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 March 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ^ a b Wilentz, Amy (17 April 2023). "Haiti, April 2023: Soon There Will Be No One Left to Kidnap". The Nation. Archived from the original on 26 April 2023. Retrieved 26 April 2023.
- ^ David C., Adams; Robles, Frances (17 March 2024). "Haiti's Hospitals Survived Cholera and Covid. Gangs Are Closing Them". New York Times. Archived from the original on 17 March 2024. Retrieved 19 March 2024.
- ^ "Haiti's prime minister is locked out of his country and faces pressure to resign". Associated Press News. 6 March 2024. Archived from the original on 6 March 2024. Retrieved 7 March 2024.
- ^ a b Robenson, Geffrard (25 April 2024). "Les membres du Conseil présidentiel de transition ont prêté serment, tôt jeudi 25 avril 2024, au Palais national". Le Nouvelliste (in French). Archived from the original on 26 April 2024. Retrieved 1 May 2024.
- ^ "New Haitian Prime Minister Sworn In". Barron's. Agence France Presse. 3 June 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
- ^ "Le nouveau Premier ministre haïtien Alix Didier Fils-Aimé a prêté serment". Radio France Internationale (in French). 11 November 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2024.
- ^ "Geography: Haiti". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
- ^ "Geography: Haiti". Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n "CIA World Factbook – Haiti". Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
- ^ NgCheong-Lum, Roseline (2005). Haiti (Cultures of the World). New York: Times Editions. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7614-1968-6. Archived from the original on 17 February 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2014.
- ^ Jennifer Wells, "A dam for the people, and A people damned" Archived 3 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine, Toronto Star, 21 November 2010
- ^ Larry Rohter (19 October 1998). "Whose Rock Is It? Yes, the Haitians Care". Port-au-Prince Journal (reprinted in New York Times). Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 28 January 2012.
- ^ "Navassa Island: A Photographic Tour (1998–1999)". US Geological Survey. August 2000. Archived from the original on 19 November 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
- ^ ""Magnitude 7.0 – HAITI REGION Tectonic Summary" United States Geological Survey, 12 January 2010". Earthquake.usgs.gov. Archived from the original on 15 January 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
- ^ Hayes, G.P.; Briggs R.W.; Sladen A.; Fielding E.J.; Prentice C.; Hudnut K.; Mann P.; Taylor F.W.; Crone A.J.; Gold R.; Ito T.; Simons M. (2010). "Complex rupture during the 12 January 2010 Haiti earthquake" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 3 (11): 800–805. Bibcode:2010NatGe...3..800H. doi:10.1038/ngeo977. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2017. Retrieved 13 July 2019.
- ^ DeMets, C.; Wiggins-Grandison W. (2007). "Deformation of Jamaica and motion of the Gonâve microplate from GPS and seismic data". Geophysical Journal International. 168 (1): 362–378. Bibcode:2007GeoJI.168..362D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2006.03236.x.
- ^ Mann, Paul; Calais, Eric; Demets, Chuck; Prentice, Carol S; Wiggins-Grandison, Margaret (March 2008). "Entiquillo-Plantain Garden Strike-Slip Fault Zone: A Major Seismic Hazard Affecting Dominican Republic, Haiti and Jamaica". 18th Caribbean Geological Conference. Archived from the original on 16 January 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2010.
- ^ "3 Questions: Understanding the Haiti earthquakes". MIT News | Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 1 June 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ^ ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT OF THE USAID/HAITI NORTH PARK POWER PROJECT Archived 5 August 2022 at the Wayback Machine. United States Agency for International Development. ute.gouv.ht. June 2011
- ^ Brown, John S. (1924). "The Hot Springs of the Republic of Haiti". The Journal of Geology. 32 (5). University of Chicago Press: 384–399. Bibcode:1924JG.....32..384B. doi:10.1086/623111. ISSN 0022-1376. S2CID 128421492. Archived from the original on 22 August 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2022.
- ^ "Deforestation Exacerbates Haiti Floods". USA Today. 23 September 2004. Archived from the original on 23 December 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Tarter, Andrew (19 May 2016). "Haiti Is Covered with Trees". EnviroSociety. Archived from the original on 16 November 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2016.
- ^ Grantham, H. S.; Duncan, A.; Evans, T. D.; Jones, K. R.; Beyer, H. L.; Schuster, R.; Walston, J.; Ray, J. C.; Robinson, J. G.; Callow, M.; Clements, T.; Costa, H. M.; DeGemmis, A.; Elsen, P. R.; Ervin, J.; Franco, P.; Goldman, E.; Goetz, S.; Hansen, A.; Hofsvang, E.; Jantz, P.; Jupiter, S.; Kang, A.; Langhammer, P.; Laurance, W. F.; Lieberman, S.; Linkie, M.; Malhi, Y.; Maxwell, S.; Mendez, M.; Mittermeier, R.; Murray, N. J.; Possingham, H.; Radachowsky, J.; Saatchi, S.; Samper, C.; Silverman, J.; Shapiro, A.; Strassburg, B.; Stevens, T.; Stokes, E.; Taylor, R.; Tear, T.; Tizard, R.; Venter, O.; Visconti, P.; Wang, S.; Watson, J. E. M. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
- ^ "Haiti GeoPortal at CIESIN". New York: Columbia University. 2012. Archived from the original on 11 September 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2016.
- ^ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil D.; Wikramanayake, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne; Hedao, Prashant; Noss, Reed; Hansen, Matt; Locke, Harvey; Ellis, Erle C; Jones, Benjamin; Barber, Charles Victor; Hayes, Randy; Kormos, Cyril; Martin, Vance; Crist, Eileen; Sechrest, Wes; Price, Lori; Baillie, Jonathan E. M.; Weeden, Don; Suckling, Kierán; Davis, Crystal; Sizer, Nigel; Moore, Rebecca; Thau, David; Birch, Tanya; Potapov, Peter; Turubanova, Svetlana; Tyukavina, Alexandra; de Souza, Nadia; Pintea, Lilian; Brito, José C.; Llewellyn, Othman A.; Miller, Anthony G.; Patzelt, Annette; Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Timberlake, Jonathan; Klöser, Heinz; Shennan-Farpón, Yara; Kindt, Roeland; Lillesø, Jens-Peter Barnekow; van Breugel, Paulo; Graudal, Lars; Voge, Maianna; Al-Shammari, Khalaf F.; Saleem, Muhammad (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
- ^ a b c d Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 6.
- ^ a b Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 4.
- ^ Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 5
- ^ "1987 Constitution of the Republic of Haiti". Georgetown University. Article 134. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- ^ "OEA - Organización de los Estados Americanos: Democracia para la paz, la seguridad y el desarrollo". www.oas.org (in Spanish). 1 August 2009. Archived from the original on 1 June 2024. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
- ^ Michele Kelemen (2 March 2004). "Haiti Starts Over, Once Again". Npr.org. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Olivier, Louis-Joseph, ed. (14 August 2015). "Création de cinq nouvelles communes par décret présidentiel". Le Nouvelliste (in French). Archived from the original on 23 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
- ^ "Haïti – Politique: 5 nouvelles communes en Haïti". Haiti Libre. 16 August 2015. Archived from the original on 28 October 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
- ^ "7300.- Divisions territoriales" (in French). Haiti-Référence. 17 August 2015. Archived from the original on 22 March 2022. Retrieved 17 March 2016.
- ^ "Haiti becomes a member of the African Union". Haitilibre.com. 2 February 2012. Archived from the original on 23 August 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Sampson, Ovetta (29 February 2012). "Long distance relationship: Haiti's bid to join the African Union". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 11 September 2022. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
- ^ "Despite reports, Haiti not joining the African Union". PBS NewsHour. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 5 April 2017.
- ^ "Missions et Attributions du Ministère de la Défense". Ministere de la Defense. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
- ^ "Haiti a step closer to having army again". USA Today. 16 September 2013. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ Sadowski, Dennis (6–19 August 2010). "Hope and struggles remain in Haiti six months after earthquake". Florida Catholic. Orlando, Florida. pp. A7.
- ^ The Military Balance 2023. International Institute for Strategic Studies. 2023. p. 402.
- ^ "Haitian Law". Jurist.law.pitt.edu. Archived from the original on 30 June 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haiti tops world corruption table". BBC News. 6 November 2006. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "2006 Corruption Perceptions Index reinforces link between poverty and corruption". Transparency International. 6 November 2006. Archived from the original on 12 May 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2009.
- ^ Siri Schubert (22 May 2009). "Haiti: The Long Road to Recovery, Public Broadcasting Service". Pbs.org. Archived from the original on 1 September 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haiti: Police and Law Enforcement". GSDRC. 2010. Archived from the original on 8 June 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
- ^ "Aristide Development". American Spectator. 27 (7). 1 July 1994.
- ^ "Rapport UCREF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2006. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Probe of Aristide administration finds evidence of embezzlement". Dominican Today. 31 October 2005. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2016.
- ^ Mary Anastasia O'Grady (12 February 2007). "The Haiti File". Online.wsj.com. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Schifferes, Steve (1 March 2004). "Haiti: An economic basket-case". BBC News. Archived from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Some 437,000 people murdered worldwide in 2012, according to new UNODC study". Archived from the original on 17 April 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
- ^ "Global Study on Homicide" (PDF). UNODC. 2013. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 July 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ "Haiti among safest destinations in the Americas, say recent studies". Caribbean News Now. 7 January 2013. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ Luxner, Larry, ed. (22 June 2013). "Haiti earthquake fails to deter hotel boom". Baltimore Post-Examiner. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ "NYPD officers train Haitian police". USA Today. Associated Press. 17 November 2014. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ a b "Haiti: governance, Rule of Law, and Security". USAID. Archived from the original on 26 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ Gardiner, Sean (3 August 2010). "NYPD Set to Aid Haitian Cops". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2021 – via wsj.com.
- ^ "NYPD Answering Calls for Help in Haiti". 5 April 2014. Archived from the original on 28 July 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ a b McFadden, David (20 February 2017). "Malnutrition killing inmates in Haiti jails". apnews.com. Archived from the original on 2 January 2020. Retrieved 2 January 2020.
- ^ "Living hell: Officials alarmed by upsurge of inmates dying in Haiti prisons". Fox News. 20 February 2017. Archived from the original on 31 March 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- ^ "Haitian prison rife with malnutrition". BBC News. 21 February 2017. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
- ^ "Haiti violence: Haiti gangs demand PM resign after mass jailbreak". BBC News. 3 March 2024. Archived from the original on 12 March 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
- ^ "International Human Development Indicators: Haiti". United Nations Development Programme. 2010. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011.
- ^ "Jean Bertrand Aristide net worth". WOW509. Archived from the original on 16 October 2014. Retrieved 16 October 2014.
- ^ Farah Stockman (7 March 2004). "Before fall of Aristide, Haiti hit by aid cutoff by". Boston.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haiti: Economy". Michigan State University. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022. Retrieved 16 January 2010.
- ^ "Haiti: Enhanced Initiative for Heavily Indebted Poor Countries" (PDF). International Monetary Fund. September 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haiti Economy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 January 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2015.
- ^ Anastasia Moloney (28 September 2009). "Haiti's aid controversy". Thomson Reuters Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Christopher Marquis (21 July 2004). "$1 Billion Is Pledged to Help Haiti Rebuild, Topping Request". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Katz, Jonathan M. (11 April 2010). "Haiti's police struggle to control ravaged capital". Fox News. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 15 October 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
- ^ "Haiti fears grows despite surge in relief effort". Yahoo! News. 18 January 2009.[dead link]
- ^ "Universidad de Haití donada por RD se llamará ahora 'Roi Henry I'". El Nuevo Diario. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
- ^ "República Dominicana: Ayuda a su vecino Haití después del terremoto". Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
- ^ "What does Haiti have to show for the US$13 billion in earthquake aid?-NBC News.com". NBC News. January 2015. Archived from the original on 4 July 2022. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
- ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 9 February 2021. Retrieved 24 May 2015.
- ^ a b Watkins, Tate (8 May 2013). "How Haiti's Future Depends on American Markets". The Atlantic. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Powering Haiti with Clean Energy". Retrieved 1 September 2023.
- ^ "The Haiti Sustainable Energy Programme" (PDF). UNEP. May 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 14 December 2018.
- ^ Pauyo, Jean (March 2017). "Transmitting and Distributing Electricity in Haiti" (PDF). Copenhagen Consensus Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2019.
- ^ a b Matthew Lucky, Katie Auth, Alexander Ochs, et al., Haiti Sustainable Energy Roadmap: Harnessing Domestic Energy Resources to Build an Affordable, Reliable, and Climate-Compatible Electricity System (Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute, 2014).
- ^ "Energy". U.S. Agency for International Development. 16 August 2018. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
- ^ "Vant Bèf Info Énergie : le projet d'électrification 24/24 présenté aux Citoyens haïtiens -". Vant Bèf Info (in French). 31 October 2018. Archived from the original on 5 November 2018. Retrieved 4 November 2018.
- ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". cia.gov. Retrieved 12 December 2016.
- ^ "The World Factbook". cia.gov. Retrieved 24 May 2015.
- ^ "Latin America Shouldn't Bet Everything On Remittances". World Bank. 31 October 2006. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011.
- ^ Kennedy, C. L. (2014). "Toward Effective Intervention for Haiti's Former Child Slaves". Human Rights Quarterly. 36 (4): 756–778. doi:10.1353/hrq.2014.0059. S2CID 144412249.
- ^ Sommerfelt, Tone (October 2014). "Child Domestic Workers in Haiti 2014" (PDF). haiti-now.org.[permanent dead link]
- ^ a b Gagnon-Joseph, Nathalie (22 December 2015). "On sports, treasure hunting, and life". The Chronicle. Barton, Vermont. pp. 28A, 29A. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 29 December 2015.
- ^ "Frager, Haiti: shortening the perfume chain to become world number one". International Trade Centre. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
- ^ "Perfume manufacturers must cope with the scarcity of precious supplies". The Guardian. 4 March 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
- ^ Adams, David (24 April 2014). "FEATURE-Perfumers promote fair trade for Haiti's 'super-crop'". Reuters UK. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 12 April 2015.
- ^ a b "Feeding Haiti: A new menu". The Economist. 22 June 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ a b "Environmental Accessment of the USAID/Haiti North Park Power Project" (PDF). USAID. 2011. p. 23. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ "Haiti Economy Profile 2016". Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ "All About Money: Gourdes, Dollars and Sense for Work and Life in Haiti" (PDF). haitihub.com. Retrieved 16 February 2014.
- ^ "Best Western International targets 120 new hotel projects in 2013". Traveldailynews.com. Archived from the original on 25 January 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2015.
- ^ Major, Brian (9 December 2014). "Dispatch: Good Times in Haiti". TravelPulse.
- ^ Thomson, Ian, ed. (27 July 2014). "Haiti returns to the tourist map". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
- ^ Lall, Gay Nagle, ed. (22 May 2013). "An Unlikely Location for Luxury". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
- ^ Myers, Gay Nagle, ed. (21 May 2013). "Tourism minister's plan aims to reveal Haiti's 'hidden beauty'". Travel Weekly. Retrieved 13 February 2017.
- ^ Barbara De Lollis (29 November 2011). "Marriott announces first hotel in Haiti". Travel.usatoday.com. Archived from the original on 26 June 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ a b "Clintons land in Haiti to showcase industrial park". USA Today. 22 October 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
- ^ a b "Outsourcing Haiti". Boston Review. 16 January 2014. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ "Clintons preside at star-studded opening of Haitian industrial park". Reuters.com. 22 October 2012. Archived from the original on 19 June 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "State Dept. Fact Sheet on Haiti's Caracol Industrial Park". US Policy. 22 October 2012. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ "Caracol Industrial Park". USAID. 2014. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ a b c d "Haiti and the failed promise of US aid". The Guardian. 11 October 2019. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ "These Haitians Were Children When A US-Funded Project Evicted Them". Buzzfeed. 15 June 2022. Retrieved 24 March 2024.
- ^ "CRD Wants to Build Railway that Runs Through Haiti". dreamintv.com. 20 February 2018. Archived from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 17 November 2019.
- ^ "Haiti – Tourism : Official launch of project "Tourist destination Ile-à-Vache" – HaitiLibre.com : Haiti news 7/7". HaitiLibre.com.
- ^ "Haiti's main international airport reopens nearly three months after gang violence forced it closed". NBC News. 20 May 2024. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
- ^ "Port-au-Prince: Haiti's main airport reopens after weeks of gang violence". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
- ^ "Tap-Tap". Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "UN Volunteer takes part in art exhibition in Germany". Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 29 January 2014.
- ^ "NRI Overall Ranking 2014" (PDF). World Economic Forum. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
- ^ "New Haiti Census Shows Drastic Lack of Jobs, Education, Maternal Health Services". United Nations Population Fund. 10 May 2006. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haiti – Population". Library of Congress Country Studies. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "American FactFinder – Results". U.S. Census Bureau. Archived from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ Pina, Diógenes (21 March 2007). "DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Deport Thy (Darker-Skinned) Neighbour". Inter Press Service (IPS). Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 14 October 2008.
- ^ Haiti in Cuba Retrieved 30 December 2013.
- ^ "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data". Archived from the original on 5 December 2008. Retrieved 26 April 2009., Statistics Canada (2006).
- ^ "France Suspends Expulsions Of Illegal Haitians". Gulfnews.com. 14 January 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Davis, Nick (20 September 2009). "Bahamas outlook clouds for Haitians". BBC News. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Haiti | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
- ^ Wingfield, Roland; Parenton, Vernon J. (1965). "Class Structure and Class Conflict in Haitian Society". Social Forces. 43 (3): 338–347. doi:10.2307/2574763. JSTOR 2574763.
- ^ Smucker, Glenn R (December 1989). Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.). "A Country Study: Haiti; The Upper Class". Library of Congress Federal Research Division.
- ^ Lobb, John (2018). "Caste and Class in Haiti". American Journal of Sociology. 46 (1): 23–34. doi:10.1086/218523. JSTOR 2769747. S2CID 144100302.
- ^ "Religions in Haiti – PEW-GRF". globalreligiousfutures.org. Archived from the original on 29 September 2022. Retrieved 25 February 2018.
- ^ Rey, Terry; Stepick, Alex (2013). Crossing the Water and Keeping the Faith: Haitian Religion in Miami. NYU Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4798-2077-1.
With no indications of any subsequent decline in Protestant affiliation either in Port-au-Prince or the countryside, one could reasonably estimate that today Haiti is already more than one-third Protestant
- ^ Lee, Morgan (13 November 2014). "Sorry, Pope Francis: Protestants Are Converting Catholics Across Latin America". News & Reporting.
- ^ "Religion in Latin America". 13 November 2014.
- ^ "Overview: Pentecostalism in Latin America". 5 October 2006.
- ^ Blier, Suzanne Preston (1995). "Vodun: West African Roots of Vodou". In Donald J., Cosentino (ed.). Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. pp. 61–87. ISBN 978-0-930741-47-1.
- ^ McAlister, Elizabeth (1998). "The Madonna of 115th St. Revisited: Vodou and Haitian Catholicism in the Age of Transnationalism". In Warner, S. (ed.). Gatherings in Diaspora. Philadelphia: Temple Univ. Press. ISBN 978-1-56639-614-1.
- ^ Rey, Terry; Stepick, Alex, eds. (2013). Crossing the Water and Keeping the Faith Haitian Religion in Miami. NYU Press. p. 197. ISBN 9780814777084. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
- ^ La langue française dans le monde 2014 (PDF). Nathan. 2014. ISBN 978-2-09-882654-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 20 May 2015.
- ^ À ce propos, voir l'essai Prétendus Créolismes : le couteau dans l'igname, Jean-Robert Léonidas, Cidihca, Montréal 1995
- ^ "What Languages Are Spoken in Haiti?". 29 July 2019.
- ^ "Schools Teaching in Creole Instead of French on the Rise in Haiti". 13 November 2019.
- ^ Valdman, Albert. "Creole: The National Language of Haiti". Footsteps. 2 (4). Indiana University Creole Institute: 36–39. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2008.
- ^ "Haitian Creole". Indiana University – Center for Language Technology. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
- ^ Valdman, Albert. "Creole: National Language of Haiti". Indiana University. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
- ^ Bonenfant, Jacques L. (December 1989). Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.). "History of Haitian-Creole: From Pidgin to Lingua Franca and English Influence on the Language" (PDF). Library of Congress Federal Research Division. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
- ^ Hammond, Stuart (2010). "Canada and Haiti: A brief history". Canada Haiti Action Network. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
- ^ "People & Events French West Indian refugees in Philadelphia 1792 – 1800". PBS.org. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
- ^ Kinzie 1856, p. 190
- ^ Meehan 1963, p. 445
- ^ Cohn, Scotti (2009). It Happened in Chicago. Globe Pequot Press. pp. 2–4. ISBN 978-0-7627-5056-6.
- ^ Lewis, p. 18.[incomplete short citation]
- ^ "Ministry of Education". Archived from the original on 22 October 2018. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
- ^ "Education in Haiti; Primary Education". Archived from the original on 23 March 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2007.
- ^ "Education: Overview". United States Agency for International Development. Archived from the original on 12 September 2022. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
- ^ "Haiti boosts health and education in the past decade, says new UNDP report". United Nations Development Programme. Archived from the original on 31 May 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
- ^ Franz, Paul (25 October 2010). "Improving Access to Education in Haiti". Pulitzercenter.org. Archived from the original on 14 September 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Haiti". Retrieved 21 October 2014.
- ^ "Haiti to vaccinate 95 percent of children under 10". KSL.com. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
- ^ "Haiti – Pan American Health Organization".
- ^ "Vaccination Coverage Among Children in Kindergarten — United States, 2013–14 School Year". Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ "CDC Global Health – Stories – 5 things CDC has done to help rebuild Haiti's immunization system since the 2010 earthquake". Retrieved 14 December 2016.
- ^ "Haiti Survivors Face Outbreaks of Diarrhea". BusinessWeek. 14 January 2010.[dead link]
- ^ Park, Madison (13 January 2010). "Haiti earthquake could trigger possible medical 'perfect storm". cnn.com. Retrieved 31 July 2014.
- ^ Leahy, Stephen (13 November 2008). "Haiti Can't Face More Defeats". Ipsnews.net. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "The World Factbook: HAITI. Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 12 Jan. 2017. Web. 20 Feb. 2017. — Central Intelligence Agency". cia.gov. 22 September 2021.
- ^ Masurand, Jack; Koenig, Serena; Julma, Pierrot; Ocheretina, Oksana; Durán-Mendicuti, Maria; Fitzgerald, Daniel; Pape, Jean (30 May 2017). "Active Tuberculosis Case Finding in Haiti". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 97 (2): 433–435. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.16-0674. PMC 5544073. PMID 28722608.
- ^ "Haiti and Dominican Republic Look to Eradicate Malaria". Foxnews.com. 8 October 2009. Archived from the original on 18 November 2011. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Robert Lee Hadden; Steven G. Minson (2010). "The Geology of Haiti: An Annotated Bibliography of Haiti's Geology, Geography and Earth Science" (PDF). p. 10. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Haiti, United States | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
- ^ "Solar-Powered Hospital in Haiti Yields Sustainable Savings". Archived from the original on 10 February 2017. Retrieved 21 February 2017.
- ^ Lombardo, Tom, ed. (23 June 2013). "Solar Powered Hospital". Engineering.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 18 April 2015.
- ^ a b Yurnet-Thomas, Mirta (2002). A Taste of Haiti. Hippocrene Books. pp. 13–15. ISBN 978-0-7818-0998-6. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
- ^ Onofre, Alejandro Guevara. "Haiti – Culture And Sports". Archived from the original on 27 April 2012. Retrieved 2 September 2014.
- ^ Legro, Tom (11 January 2011). "In Haiti, Art Remains a Solid Cornerstone". PBS.
- ^ a b Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 36.
- ^ Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide – Haiti, p. 37.
- ^ "Music and the Story of Haiti". Afropop Worldwide. Archived from the original on 13 November 2007.
- ^ "Haitian music billboard". 10 February 2010. Archived from the original on 10 February 2010. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Averill, Gage (1997). A Day for the Hunter, a Day for the Prey: Popular Music and Power in Haiti. University of Chicago Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-226-03291-7. Retrieved 20 April 2015.
- ^ Nzengou-Tayo, Marie-José (2012). "Chapter 7: Creole and French in Haitian Literature". In Spears, Arthur K.; Berotte Joseph, Carole M. (eds.). The Haitian Creole Language: History, Structure, Use, and Education. Lexington Books. pp. 153–176. ISBN 978-0-7391-7221-6.
- ^ Douglas, Rachel (2009). Frankétienne and Rewriting: A Work in Progress. Lexington Books. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-0-7391-3635-5.
- ^ "Pumpkin Soup – Soup Joumou". Creolemadeeasy.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2014. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
- ^ "National History Park – Citadel, Sans the great Souci, Ramiers". UNESCO. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
- ^ a b "Heritage in Haiti". UNESCO. 20 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010.
- ^ "Institut de Sauvegarde du Patrimoine National". Haiti.org. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ Paret, Robert (2010). "MUPANAH and the Promotion of Historical and Cultural Values". Museum International. 62 (4): 39–45. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0033.2011.01744.x. S2CID 142632278.
- ^ Munro, Martin (2013). Exile and Post-1946 Haitian Literature: Alexis, Depestre, Ollivier, Laferrière, Danticat. Liverpool University Press. pp. 14–. ISBN 978-1-84631-854-2.
- ^ a b Clammer, Paul (2016), Bradt Travel Guide - Haiti, p. 35.
- ^ a b "More than 300,000 people celebrated the Carnival 2012 in Les Cayes". Haitilibre.com. 22 February 2012. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
- ^ DeGennaro, Vincent (19 March 2014). "Global Doc: Kanaval". Retrieved 23 November 2014.
- ^ "Rara | Haitian Music". Haitian Music. 17 April 2012. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 17 November 2017.
- ^ "Rara: Vodou, Power, and Performance". Smithsonian Music. 8 March 2016. Retrieved 14 April 2020.
- ^ Toman, Chris (13 May 2012). "Blue Jays helping bring baseball to Haiti". Major League Baseball.
- ^ Arthur, Charles (2002). Haiti in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture. Interlink Pub Group Inc. pp. 82–83. ISBN 978-1-56656-359-8.
- ^ "History of Caribbean teams in the FIFA World Cup". Retrieved 2 September 2014.
- ^ Ewen MacAskill (10 June 2010). "World Cup 2010: How the USA's 1950 amateurs upset England and the odds". The Guardian.
Further reading
- Arthur, Charles. Haiti in Focus: A Guide to the People, Politics, and Culture. Interlink Publishing Group (2002). ISBN 1-56656-359-3.
- Dayan, Colin. Haiti, History, and the Gods. University of California Press (1998).
- Ferrer, Ada. Freedom's Mirror: Cuba and Haiti in the Age of Revolution. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
- Geggus, David (1997). "The Naming of Haiti". NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids. 71 (1/2): 43–68. doi:10.1163/13822373-90002615. ISSN 1382-2373. JSTOR 41849817.
- Girard, Philippe. Haiti: The Tumultuous History (New York: Palgrave, September 2010).
- Hadden, Robert Lee and Steven G. Minson. 2010. The Geology of Haiti: An Annotated Bibliography of Haiti's Geology, Geography and Earth Science Archived 11 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine. US Army Corps of Engineers, Army Geospatial Center. July 2010.
- Heinl, Robert (1996). Written in Blood: The History of the Haitian People. Lantham, Md.: University Press of America.
- Kinzie, Juliette (1856). Wau-Bun, the "Early Day" in the North-West. Derby and Jackson. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- Kovats-Bernat, J. Christopher. Sleeping Rough in Port-au-Prince: An Ethnography of Street Children and Violence in Haiti. University Press of Florida (2008). ISBN 978-0-8130-3302-0.
- Meehan, Thomas A. (1963). "Jean Baptiste Point du Sable, the First Chicagoan". Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society. 56 (3): 439–453. JSTOR 40190620.
- Prichard, Hesketh. Where Black Rules White: A Journey Across and About Hayti. These are exact reproductions of a book published before 1923: (Nabu Press, ISBN 978-1-146-67652-6, 5 March 2010); (Wermod and Wermod Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-9561835-8-3, 15 October 2012).
- Robinson, Randall. An Unbroken Agony: Haiti, From Revolution to the Kidnapping of a President. Basic Civitas (2007). ISBN 0-465-07050-7.
- Wilentz, Amy. The Rainy Season: Haiti Since Duvalier. Simon & Schuster (1990). ISBN 0-671-70628-4.
- Marquis, John. Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant (LMH Publishing, 2007)
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Government
- (in French) Prime Minister of Haiti Archived 17 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine
- (in French) Haitian Parliament (archived 8 August 2018)
- (in French) Ministère de la Santé Publique et de la Population
General information
- Visit Haiti Official Tourism Website
- Champlin, John Denison (1880). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. XI (9th ed.). pp. 543–546.
- . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 824–827.
- Haiti. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Haiti at UCB Libraries GovPubs (archived 7 June 2008)
- A Country Study: Haiti from the US Library of Congress (December 1989).
Wikimedia Atlas of Haiti- Haiti profile from the BBC News.
- Country Profile at New Internationalist.
- Web Site about Safe and Sustainable Water Solutions for Haiti
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| Artists | |
| People | |
| Other | |
- Haiti
- Countries in the Caribbean
- Former Spanish colonies
- Former French colonies
- French Caribbean
- Island countries
- French-speaking countries and territories
- Greater Antilles
- Least developed countries
- Member states of the Caribbean Community
- Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
- Member states of the United Nations
- Republics
- States and territories established in 1804
- 1492 establishments in the Spanish West Indies
- Small Island Developing States
- 1804 establishments in North America
- 1625 establishments in New France
- 1804 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
- 17th-century disestablishments in the Spanish West Indies
- Countries in North America